The Origins of Sciences in China : History of Science and Technology in China Volume 1

This volume outlines the origins of a wide range of disciplines including astronomy, agricultural science, medicine, physics, chemistry, and natural history. It provides an overview of China’s history of science and technology, which can be traced back to the pre-Qin times when the arts had free expression and the schools of thought were unrestricted. It also includes a glossary and comparison of the chronicle of events in China and the West for reference. This is the first volume in the series History of Science and Technology in China. History of Science and Technology in China is the first series with high academic values on general history of Chinese science and technology, with contributions by top-notch scholars in this field. This 5-volume work provides an encyclopedic historical panorama of Chinese scientific and technological development. It unfolds the history of Chinese science and technology through a clarified timeline from as early as the far ancient times to the very present. This work consists of five volumes: Origins of Chinese Sciences, Ancient Chinese Studies of Heaven and Earth, High Tide of Chinese Sciences, Theoretical and Technological Development, and Western Influences. Preface Acknowledgments Contents Contributors 1 The Astronomy in Ancient China: An Overview 1.1 The Special Position of the Study of Heaven in Ancient Chinese Culture 1.1.1 Three Special Annals on Study of Heaven in Official Histories of Dynasties 1.1.2 The Special Position in Political Affairs in Ancient Times 1.1.3 The Special Position of Study of Heaven in Intellectual Pursuit in Ancient Times 1.1.4 The Special Position of Imperial Institutions on Study of Heaven 1.1.5 Strict Prohibitions on Privately Learning Study of Heaven in Successive Dynasties 1.2 Properties of the Study of Heaven and Its Societal Functions 1.2.1 Correspondence Between Man and Heaven and the Concept of Mandate of Heaven 1.2.2 A Political Concept: The Man Who Communicates with Heaven Is the King 1.2.3 Relationship Between the Study of Heaven and the Regal Power 1.2.4 The Political Role that the Study of Heaven Plays 1.3 An Outline of Astrology in Ancient China 1.3.1 A General Survey of Astrology in Ancient Civilizations: Two Categories 1.3.2 Theory of Dividing Line 1.3.3 Things to Predict: The Main Task of Astrology 1.3.4 Phenomena for Divination 1.3.4.1 Solar - Category One 1.3.4.2 Lunar - Category Two 1.3.4.3 Planets - Category Three 1.3.4.4 Stars - Category Four 1.3.4.5 Comets, Meteors, and Meteorites - Category Five 1.3.4.6 Auspicious and Demon Stars - Category Six 1.3.4.7 Atmospheric Phenomena - Category 7 1.3.5 Astrological Methods 1.3.6 Celestial Phenomena: Recording and Fabricating 1.4 A Survey on Study of Heaven Development in Successive Dynasties 1.4.1 Pre-Qin Period 1.4.2 Qin and Han Dynasties 1.4.3 The Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties 1.4.4 The Sui, Tang, and the Five Dynasties 1.4.5 The Northern and Southern Song Dynasties 1.4.6 The Yuan Dynasty 1.4.7 The Ming Dynasty 1.4.8 The Qing Dynasty 2 Pre-Qin Period: Science and Technology in Contending Schools 2.1 The Rise of Casting Technology and Ironware 2.1.1 The New Climax for Bronze Casting 2.1.2 Origin and Development of Iron Smelting 2.1.3 The Softening of the Cast Iron 2.1.4 Steel Smelting 2.2 Construction of Large-Scale Water Conservancy Project 2.2.1 Irrigation Project 2.2.2 Dyke Building Technology 2.3 Thought of Valuing Agriculture and the Emergence of Intensive Cultivation 2.3.1 Thought of Valuing Agriculture 2.3.2 Intensive Cultivation 2.3.3 Manure-Rich Field and Soil Improvement 2.4 Kaogong Ji and the Norm of Handicraft Techniques 2.4.1 Vehicle Manufacturing 2.4.2 Bow and Arrow Production 2.4.3 Bell and Stone-Chime Production 2.4.4 Urban Planning and Construction 2.5 Practical Mathematical Knowledge 2.5.1 Arithmetic and Fractional Arithmetic 2.5.2 Practical Units of Measurement 2.5.3 Practical Concepts of Angles 2.6 Mechanics and Optics in Mojing 2.6.1 Mechanics in Mojing 2.6.2 Optics in Mojing 2.7 Astronomical Observation and Theory 2.7.1 Great Achievements in Astronomical Observation 2.7.2 The Achievements of Gan De and Shi Shen 2.7.3 Twenty-Eight Mansions 2.7.4 Quarter-Remainder Calendar 2.7.5 Twenty-Four Solar Terms 2.8 Geoscience Works and Protection of Forest Resources 2.8.1 Geoscience Works 2.8.2 Ancient Maps 2.8.3 Protection of the Forest Resources 2.9 Development of Biology 2.9.1 Classification of Animals and Plants 2.9.2 Phytoecology 2.9.3 Distribution Boundary Between the Animals and the Plants 2.10 Formation of Traditional Medical Theory 2.10.1 Physiology Theory of Qi and Shen 2.10.2 Pathology 2.10.3 Bian Que: The Famous Doctor 2.10.4 Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts 2.10.5 Huang Di Nei Jing (The Yellow Emperor ́s Inner Canon of Medicine) 2.11 View of Nature: Wuxing, Yin-Yang Theory, and Qi Theory 2.11.1 Wuxing (The Five Elements) 2.11.2 The Yin-Yang Doctrine 2.11.3 The Qi Theory References 3 Chinese Agronomy and the Development of Agronomy Concepts 3.1 The Developing History of Chinese Agronomy 3.1.1 Pre-Qin Period (The Neolithic Age-221 BC) 3.1.2 Period of Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties 3.1.3 Period of Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties (589-1368 AD) 3.1.4 Period of Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368-1911 AD) 3.2 The Basic Content of Chinese Agronomy 3.3 The Development of Agronomy Concepts References 4 Kaogong ji and Ancient Chinese Handicraft 4.1 Overview of Kaogong ji 4.1.1 The Nationality 4.1.2 Nature 4.1.3 Ideas 4.1.4 Written Time 4.2 Structure and Contents of Kaogong ji 4.2.1 Volume I 4.2.2 Volume II 4.3 Academic Value of Kaogong ji 4.3.1 Technical Monograph of ``Chinese Characteristics ́ ́ 4.3.2 Textual Records Verified with Unearthed Cultural Relics 4.4 Scientific Knowledge in Kaogong ji 4.4.1 Mechanics Knowledge 4.4.2 Astronomical Knowledge 4.4.3 Mathematical Knowledge 4.4.4 Chemical Knowledge 4.4.5 Historical Material of Weights and Measures 4.5 Versions ́ Origins and Research Works on Kaogong ji 4.5.1 Shisan jing zhushu: Zhouli by Zhonghua Book Company 4.5.2 Sibu beiyao Edition 4.5.3 Sibu congkan Edition 4.5.4 Siku Quanshu Edition References 5 From the Medical Books on Bamboo Slips to the Classics 5.1 Brief Introduction to the Medical Books on Bamboo Slips in the Han Dynasty 5.1.1 Juyan Bamboo Slips and Wuwei Bamboo Slips of the Han Dynasty 5.1.2 Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts 5.1.3 Maishu and Yinshu in Zhangjianshan and the Wooden Man in Mianyang 5.1.4 Wanwu (All Things on Earth) in Fuyang 5.2 Special Topics in the Medical Books of Bamboo Slips 5.2.1 The Meridian Theory 5.2.2 Exorcism Therapy 5.2.3 Transformation of Internal Medicine Dosage 5.3 The Completion of the Classic Works 5.3.1 The Current Version of Huangdi Neijing 5.3.2 Huangdi Bashiyi Nanjing 5.3.3 Shennong Bencao Jing 5.4 The Completion and Being ``The Classics ́ ́ 5.5 The Value of ``The Classics ́ ́ References 6 Literature on Bamboo Slips and Tablets and the History of Mathematics of China 6.1 Preface 6.2 A Brief Introduction to Slip and Tablet Documents of Mathematics in Ancient China 6.2.1 Suanshushu on Slips of the Han Dynasty Evacuated in Zhangjiashan 6.2.2 Shu on Slips of the Qin Dynasty in Yuelu Academy 6.2.3 Suanshu (Arithmetic Method) on Slips of the Han Dynasty Evacuated in Shuihudi 6.2.4 Suanshu (The Book of Calculation) on Slips of the Qin Dynasty in Peking University 6.3 To Examine the Authenticity of the Extant Literature with the Abundant Examples Found on Slips and Tablets 6.4 Literature on Slips and Tablets Checks the Conclusions Made in the Past Research 6.4.1 Junshu Algorithm and Junshu Problems 6.4.2 The Origin of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art in Pre-Qin Period 6.5 Literature on Slips and Tablets Impels the Scholars to Reflect on the Methods Adopted in the Past Research 6.6 Literature on Slips and Tablets Offers Important Reference for the Reconstruction of the History of Mathematics in Ancient... 6.7 Conclusion References 7 The Development of the Traditional Metrology in China 7.1 The Origin and Development of the Metrology in Ancient China 7.1.1 The Origin of Primitive Metrology 7.1.2 Promoted by Socialized Production 7.1.3 Requirement for Governance 7.2 The Formation of the Traditional Metrology 7.3 The Theoretical Forming of the Traditional Metrology 7.4 The Variation and Development of the Traditional Metrology 7.5 The Preparation of the Conversion from the Traditional Metrology to the Modern Metrology 7.6 The End of the Traditional Metrology 7.7 The Establishment of the Modern Metrology in China References 8 The Outlook on the Universe of the Chinese in Ancient Period 8.1 The Doctrine of the Creation of the Universe in Ancient China 8.2 The Doctrine of the Structure of the Universe in Ancient China 8.2.1 The Canopy-Heavens Theory 8.2.2 The Sphere-Heavens Theory 8.2.3 The Infinite Empty Space Theory 8.3 The Buddhist Outlook on the Universe in Ancient China 9 The Architecture in Ancient China 9.1 An Outline Introduction to the Development of the Architecture in Ancient China 9.1.1 The Neolithic Age (About 10,000 to 4000 Years Earlier) 9.1.2 The Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties (The Twenty-First Century BC to 222 BC, Including the Spring and Autumn Period and th... 9.1.3 The Period from the Qin and Han Dynasties to the Wei and Jin Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasties (221 BC t... 9.1.4 The Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Five Dynasties, the Song Dynasty, the Liao Dynasty, and the Jin Dynasty (581 to 1279) 9.1.5 The Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties (1279 to 1840) 9.2 The Basic Features of the Architecture in Ancient China 9.2.1 Wood Structural Components Compose the Main House Structure 9.2.2 A Symmetrical Courtyard Layout 9.2.3 Cities Constructed Mainly on a Grid of Streets According to Comprehensive Planning 9.3 The Planning and Designing Methods for the Architecture in Ancient China 9.3.1 Designs for Single Buildings 9.3.2 The Turret of the Forbidden City of Beijing City 9.3.3 The Layout of the Large Building Complexes 9.3.4 The City Planning 9.4 The Societal Conditions for the Development of the Architecture in Ancient China 10 The Angle Concept and Angle Measurement in Ancient China 10.1 The Traditional Du Was Not Identical to an Angle 10.2 To Study Astronomy with Proportionate Gauge for Du 10.3 Discussion of Kaogongji in a Matter-of-Fact Manner 10.4 The Establishment of Eastern Measurement Aided by the Western Scholars References 11 The Shipbuilding and Shipping Industry in Ancient China 11.1 From Float to Canoe 11.2 The Plank Boat Initiating a New Era of Navigation 11.3 The First Peak of Shipbuilding Industry in China 11.4 The Invention of Shipbuilding Technology in the Three Kingdoms and the Two Jin Dynasties 11.5 The Achievements of the Shipbuilding in the Sui and Tang Dynasties 11.6 The Development of Shipbuilding Technology in the Song and Yuan Dynasties 11.7 The Peak of Shipbuilding Industry in Ancient China 11.8 The Decline of Shipping Industry in China by Ban on Maritime Trade References 12 The Development of Bronze Casting in Pre-Qin Period 12.1 The Appearance of the Bronze Wares in Early China and the Rise of Bronze Casting Technology 12.1.1 The Discovery of Bronze Wares and Smelting and Casting Relics in Northwestern Region 12.1.2 Discovery of Early Bronzes and Smelting Relics in the Northern Region 12.1.3 Discovery of Early Bronzes and Smelting Relics in the Central Plains 12.1.4 The Rise of Bronze Mould Casting Technology in the Central Plains Region 12.2 The Development and Prosperity of Bronze Casting Industry in the Shang Dynasty 12.2.1 Important Bronze Smelting Sites and Bronze Wares in the Early Shang Dynasty 12.2.2 Important Bronze Smelting Sites and Bronze Wares in the Late Shang Dynasty 12.2.3 Bronze Culture of the Surrounding Areas in the Shang Dynasty 12.2.4 Development of Bronze Smelting and Casting Technology in the Shang Dynasty 12.3 Development and Reform of Bronze Smelting Industry in the Western Zhou Dynasty 12.3.1 Important Bronze Smelting Sites and Bronze Ware Groups in the Western Zhou Dynasty 12.3.2 The Reform of Bronze Smelting Technology in the Western Zhou Dynasty 12.4 The Diversified Evolution of Bronze Casting Industry in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty 12.4.1 Important Smelting Sites and Bronze Ware Groups in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty 12.4.2 Diversified Development of Bronze Technology in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty 12.4.3 The Rise of Regional Bronze Crafts in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty 12.5 Overview References 13 Zenghouyi ́s Bells and the Ancient Chinese Rhyming 13.1 The Ancient Zhong and Qing Production 13.2 Zenghouyi Bells 13.3 The Ancient Rhyming Theory 13.4 The 12-Tone Equal Temperament References 14 Craft in Bronze Kingdom: The Ancient Chinese Casting 14.1 Historical Stages of Ancient Chinese Casting Technology 14.2 The Bronze Technology from the Initial Stage to the Update Period 14.2.1 The Initial Period (the Thirtieth Century BC to the Sixteenth Century BC) 14.2.2 Breeding Period (Sixteenth Century BC to Thirteenth Century BC) 14.2.3 Peak Period (Thirteenth Century BC to the Tenth Century BC) 14.2.4 Transition Period (Tenth Century BC to Sixth Century BC) 14.2.5 Update Period (the Sixth Century BC to 221 BC) 14.3 The Foundry Technology of the Early Iron Age (the Turn of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States to the Middle of the W... 14.4 The Foundry Technology in the Complete Iron Age (From the Late Western Han Dynasty to the Wei, Jin, Southern, and Norther... 14.5 Comprehensive Developments of Metal Technology and the Era of Getting into Shape (From the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the ... 14.6 The Era of Slow Development of Traditional Metal Technology (Mid-Ming Dynasty to 1840) 15 Chinese Alchemy 15.1 The Appearance and Development of Ancient Chinese Alchemy 15.1.1 The Appearance of Alchemy 15.1.2 Malformation of Alchemy 15.1.3 The Interdependence of Alchemy and Taoism 15.2 The Rise and Fall of Ancient Chinese Alchemy 15.2.1 The Prevalence of Eating Elixir 15.2.2 The Promotion of Alchemy Experiments 15.2.3 Great Test of Behaviors of Eating Elixir 15.3 Famous Ancient Chinese Alchemist and Works on Alchemy 15.3.1 The Classic of the Yellow Emperor Nine-Ding Immortal Elixir 15.3.2 Wei Boyang and Zhou Yi Can Tong Qi 15.3.3 Ge Hong and Baopuzi-Inner Chapters 15.3.4 Sun Simiao and Taiqing Gold Elixir Formula 15.3.5 Jinlingzi and Formula of Longhu Returning Elixir 15.3.6 Chen Shaowei and Formulas of Refining ZhenbaoJing Fuling Elixir in Big Cave 15.3.7 The Summary of the Great Methods of Alchemy 15.3.8 Stone Medicine Er Ya, Judgement of Elixir Formulas, Rules in Elixir-Refining Room 15.4 The Theories, Approaches, and Rules of Ancient Chinese Alchemy 15.4.1 The Core Theory of Alchemy 15.4.2 The Main Raw Materials of Alchemy 15.4.3 Basic Equipments and Tools for Alchemy 15.4.3.1 Building Houses 15.4.3.2 Setting up Altar 15.4.3.3 Furnaces and Ranges 15.4.3.4 Reaction Vessels 15.4.3.5 Sublimators 15.4.3.6 Distillator 15.4.3.7 Huachi 15.4.3.8 Liuyini(Six-One Mud) 15.4.4 Names of Common Elixir 15.4.5 Common Alchemy Methods 15.4.5.1 Flying (Sublimation Method) 15.4.5.2 Water Flying 15.4.5.3 Chou Method (Distillation Method) 15.4.5.4 Fire Heating Method 15.4.5.5 Point Method 15.4.5.6 Transfer Method 15.4.5.7 Nursing Method 15.4.5.8 Calcinating Method 15.4.5.9 Closing Method 15.4.5.10 Drenching Method 15.4.6 General Rules of Alchemy 15.4.6.1 Choosing Friends 15.4.6.2 Choosing the Position 15.4.6.3 Taking the Bath 15.4.6.4 Duration and Degree of Heating 15.4.6.5 Taboos and Sacrifices 15.4.6.6 Incantations and Spells References 16 The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art and Liu Hui 16.1 The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: The Establishment of the Traditional Mathematical Framework in China 16.1.1 The Style and Compilation of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 16.1.2 The Contents and Accomplishments in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 16.1.3 The Faults of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art and the Status of the Book in the Mathematical History in China... 16.2 Liu Hui and His Masterpieces of Annotations to The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art and Sea Island Mathematical Manu... 16.2.1 Liu Hui 16.2.2 The Guideline of Arithmetic: L 16.2.3 Churu Xiangbu Principle 16.2.4 Cyclotomy 16.2.5 Liu Hui Principle and Liu Hui ́s Volume Theory 16.2.6 The Logic Ideas and the Theoretical System of Mathematics Given by Liu Hui 16.2.7 Conclusion Term Interpretation Works 1. Baopuzi-Inner Chapters 2. Suanshu (The Book of Calculation) - Bamboo Slips of the Qin Dynasty Stored Up in Peking University 3. Ben Cao Gang Mu (Compendium of Materia Medica) 4. Ben Cao Ji Zhu (Herbal Annotation) 5. Album for Facilitating the People 6. A New Book on Natural Science 7. Natural History 8. The Introduction of Measurement 9. Sea Mirror of the Circle Measurements 10. The Classic on Tea 11. Chen Fu ́s Book on Agriculture 12. Chongzhen Imperial Almanac 13. The Biography of Chouren (Biographies of Mathematicians and Astronomers) 14. The Great Unified Calendar 15. Da Yan Calendar 16. Danyuanzi Butian Ge (The Measurement of Celestial Bodies by Danyuanzi) 17. Dili Quanzhi (Treatise on Geoscience) 18. Dixue Qianshi (Principle of Geology) 19. Essentials of Geography for Reading History 20. Dunhuang Almanacs 21. Er Ya 22. The Book of Fan Shengzhi 23. The Simple Method for Circumference by Cutting Circle 24. Complementation to Natural Studies 25. The Chinese Scientific Magazine 26. Guanzi-Diyuan 27. The Enlarged Terrestrial Atlas 28. Sea Island Mathematical Manual 29. Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms 30. Book of Han - Treatise on Geography 31. Book of Han - Treatise on Ditches and Canals 32. Book of Han - Treatise on Astronomy 33. Huainanzi 34. Huan Rong Jiao Yi 35. The Imperial Ultimate Calendar 36. The Overview Map of the Imperial Territory 37. The Yellow Emperor ́s Classic of 81 Adventures 38. The Yellow Emperor ́s Classic of Internal Medicine 39. The Hui ́s Calendar 40. Illustrated Explanation of the Sphere and the Astrolabe 41. The Annotations on Armillary Sphere 42. Continuation of Ancient Mathematics 43. Elements of Geometry 44. Jialiang Suanjing (Jialiang Arithmetic Classics) 45. Instruction on Elementary Astronomical Instrument 46. Jingtiangai 47. Mirror Mirroring Fantasy 48. A Complete Collection of Mathematics in Nine Sections 49. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art 50. Navagraha Calendar 51. Materia Medica for Famines 52. The Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era 53. Kangxi Jixia Gewu Bian 54. Kaogongji (The Artificer ́s Record) 55. A Map of the Myriad Countries of the World/Great Universal Geographic Map 56. Lishi Yishu (The Posthumous Papers of Mr. Li) 57. Lixiang Kaocheng (The Examination on the Establishment of Astronomical Patterns) 58. The Combination of Calendar Studies 59. The Linde Calendar 60. Constitution of Spirit 61. The Six Military Strategies 62. The Interpretations of Astronomical and Meteorological Phenomena (The Silk Book Unearthed in Mawangdui) 63. Medical Books Unearthed in Mawangdui 64. The Pulse Classic 65. Mengxi Bitan (The Dream Pool Essays) 66. The Illustrative plates of Cotton 67. The Mohist Canon 68. Biography of Emperor Mu 69. Nan Fang Cao Mu Zhuang (The Systematic Learning of Grasses, Trees, Fruits and Bamboos in the Southern Part of China) 70. Essentials of Farming and Sericulture 71. Essentials of Farming and Sericulture for Food and Clothing 72. Agricultural Sciences 73. The Series of Agronomy 74. A Complete Treatise on Agriculture 75. The Almanac of Seven Luminaries (The Weekly Calendar) 76. Qi Min Yao Shu (Essential Techniques for the Welfare of the People) 77. Qian Jin Fang (The Thousand Golden Prescriptions) 78. The Convenient Methods in Table Calculations 79. Quan Ti Tong Kao 80. Shan Hai Jing (The Classic of the Mountains and Seas) 81. Shanghan Zabing Lun (Treatise on Cold Pathogenic and Miscellaneous Diseases) 82. Shennong ́s Herbal Classic 83. The Ten Mathematic Classics (Suan Jing Shi Shu) 84. The Shi ́s Table of Stars 85. Shixian Almanac 86. The Treatise on Rivers and Canals of The Records of the Grand Historian 87. The Treatise on Constellations of The Records of the Grand Historian 88. Shoushi Calendar (Calendar for Time Service) 89. The Book of General Studies 90. The Essence of Mathematical Theory 91. Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections 92. Shui Jing Zhu (Commentary on the Waterways Classic) 93. The Bamboo Slips Unearthed in Shuihudi Arithmatic 94. Simin Yueling (Monthly Instructions for Four Classes of People) 95. Sishi Cuanyao (Outline of the Four Seasons) 96. Precious Mirror of the Four Elements 97. Suanfa Tongzong (Collection of Algorithms) 98. Suanxue Qimeng (Introduction to Mathematical Studies) 99. Sun Bin Bing Fa (The Art of War) 100. Sun Zi Bing Fa (The Art of War) 101. Sun Zi Suan Jing (The Computational Canon of Sun Zi) 102. The Primordial Calendar (Taichu Calendar) 103. Taixi Renshen Shuogai (Outline of Human Body in the Western Knowledge) 104. Talk About the Heaven (The Outline of Astronomy) 105. Tianbu Zhenyuan 106. Tian Gong Kai Wu (Heavenly Creations) 107. TianYan Lun (Evolution of Nature) 108. Tongwen Suanzhi (Epitome arithmeticae practicae) (An Introduction to a Method of Calculation Which Is Very Close to the W... 109. Waike Zhengzong (Authentic Surgery) 110. Wang Zhen ́s Agricultural Book 111. Wu Pu Materia Medica 112. Wu Zi 113. The Treatise on Armament 114. The General Essentials of Military Classics 115. Wu Ji Tan Bing (The Collection and Commentary on the Military Books by Wang Fu of Qing Dynasty) 116. Rudiments of Physics 117. Almanac with the New Western Method (The Arithmetic Classic with the New Western Method) 118. Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified 119. Xia Xiao Zheng 120. Xiangshu Yiyuan (The Common Origin of Image-numerology) 121. The New Calendar of the Morning Convent 122. Xin Xiu Ben Cao (Newly Revised Herbology) 123. Essential Principles of the New Astronomical Equipment 124. Records of the New Instruments on Observatory 125. The Travels of Xu Xiake 126. Yang Hui Algorithm 127. Yi-Si Astrology 128. Yi Gu Yan Duan (Old Mathematics in Expanded Sections) 129. Yingzao Fashi (The Explanation of Construction Method) 130. Ying-huan Chi-lue (The Historical Geography of the World) 131. Yu Gong (Tribute of Yu) 132. Yuzhi Lixiang Kaocheng (Compendium of Calendrical Science and Astronomy Compiled by Imperial Order) 133. Yuzhi Lixiang Kaocheng Houbian (Sequel Compendium of Calendrical Science and Astronomy Compiled by Imperial Order) 134. Yuanhe Illustrated Annals of Prefectures and Counties 135. The Yuanjia Almanac 136. Theory of Telescope 137. The Book on Reckoning - The Bamboo Slips of the Han Dynasty in Zhangjiashan 138. Zhaoyu Map (Map of a Millionaire Domain) 139. Zhenjiu Jiayi Jing (The Systematized Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) 140. Zheng Lei Ben Cao (Collected Classified Materia Medica) 141. Zhifang Wai Ji (Essentials of Western Geography) 142. Zhi Wu Ming Shi Tu Kao (An Illustrated Book of Plants) 143. Botany 144. An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics 145. Zhoubi Suanjing (Zhoubi Computing Classics) 146. Zhou Yi Can Tong Qi 147. Zhou Hou Fang (Prescriptions and Acupuncture for First Aid) Personages 1. Giulio Aleni 2. J. Edkins 3. Bi Sheng 4. Bian Que 5. Cai Lun 6. Cai Yong 7. Chen Zhuo 8. Cheng Dawei 9. Cui Hao 10. Dai Xu 11. Dai Zhen 12. Johann Scheck 13. William A. P. Martin 14. Fang Yizhi 15. John Fryer 16. Gan De 17. Ge Hong 18. Geng Shouchang 19. Guo Shoujing 20. Benjamin Hobson 21. He Chengtian 22. Hua Hengfang 23. Hua Tuo 24. Huang Lüzhuang 25. Jia Kui 26. Jia Sixie 27. Jia Xian 28. Jiang Ji 29. Michel Benoist 30. Jiao Xun 31. Li Chunfeng 32. Li Gao 33. Li Rui 34. Li Shanlan 35. Li Shizhen 36. Li Ye 37. Li Zhizao 38. Matteo Ricci 39. Li Daoyuan 40. Emperor Wu Di of the Liang Dynasty/Xiao Yan 41. Liu Zhuo 42. Liu Hui 43. Liu Wansu 44. Liu Xin 45. Luo Hongxian 46. Giacomo Rho 47. Lao Xiahong 48. Ma Jun 49. Marco Polo 50. Mei WenDing 51. Ming Antu 52. Nangong Yue 53. Ferdnand Verbies 54. Nian Xiyao 55. Pan Jixun 56. Diego de Pantoja 57. Pei Xiu 58. Qianjia Xuepai (The Qianjia School) 59. Qin Jiushao 60. Qiu Chuji 61. The Gautama Family 62. Gautama Siddha 63. Ruan Yuan 64. Shen Kuo 65. Shi Shen 66. Song Ci 67. Song Yingxing 68. Su Song 69. Sun Simiao 70. Sun Yunqiu 71. Johann Adam Schall von Bell 72. The ``Three Scholars on Heaven ́ ́ Coming from India to China in the Tang Dynasty 73. Tao Hongjing 74. Wang Lai 75. Wang Chong 76. Wang Qingren 77. Wang Shuhe 78. Wang Xichan 79. Wang Xun 80. Alexander Wylie 81. Wei Yuan 82. Wu Tang 83. Wu Youxing 84. Wu Liande 85. Xianyu Wangren 86. Xiang Mingda 87. Xiong Mingyu 88. Sabbatino de Ursis 89. Xu Guangqi 90. Xu Shou 91. Xu Xiake 92. Xue Fengzuo 93. Yan Fu 94. Emmanuel Diaz 95. Yang Guangxian 96. Yang Hui 97. Yang Xiong 98. Yelü Chucai 99. Ye Gui 100. Yixing 101. Yu Xi 102. Zhan Tianyou 103. Zhang Congzheng 104. Zhang Heng 105. Zhang Zhongjing 106. Zhang Zixin 107. Zhao Shuang 108. Zhao Youqin 109. Zheng Fuguang 110. Zheng He 111. Zhu Shijie 112. Zhu Zaiyu 113. Zhu Zhenheng 114. Zou Boqi 115. Zu Chongzhi 116. Zu Geng Organizations 1. The General Administration Office of Epidemic Prevention in Three Northeastern Provinces of China 2. The Shanghai Polytechnic Institution 3. The Christian Literature Society for China 4. Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau 5. Jing Shi Tong Wen Guan (School of Combined Learning) 6. The American Presbyterian Mission Press 7. The London Missionary Society Press 8. The Translation Press of Nanyang College 9. The Commercial Press 10. The Tushanwan Press 11. Union Medical College 12. The School and Text Book Series Committee 13. Chinese Geographical Society Concepts 1. Bagua (The Eight Diagrams) 2. Bai Ji Shu (The Method to the Hundred Fowls Problem) 3. The 100-Quarter System 4. Ban Shuo (Issuing the New Official Calendar) 5. The North Star 6. Bencao (Chinese Materia Medica) 7. Chengfen Algorithm 8. Rod-Arithmetic 9. Out-In Complementary Principle 10. Dayan Qiuyi Shu 11. Center of the Earth 12. Du (Degree) 13. Duoji Shu (Stacking Multiplication Method) 14. Ershiba Xiu (Twenty-Eight Mansions or Constellations) 15. The 24 Solar Terms 16. Fangcheng Algorithm 17. Taoist Sexual Alchemy 18. Fenye (One Concept of Ancient Astrology) 19. Fu Rui (Semiotical Omen) 20. The Canopy Heavens Theory 21. Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches for Recording Dates and Years 22. Cyclotomy/Circle Segmentation Method 23. Geshu (Natural Studies) 24. Studying the Nature of Things in Order to Acquire Knowledge 25. Gengxiang Jiansun Shu (Decreases Technique) 26. Gougu Algorithm (The Pythagorean Algorithm) 27. The Inscribed Quadrilateral of a Triangle 28. The Inscribed Circle of a Triangle 29. The Ancient Quartering Calendars 30. Observe the Celestial Phenomena and Provide the Time Service 31. The Maritime Silk Road 32. Fata Morgana 33. The Algorithm for Addition of Fractions 34. Hou Qi (The Method of Forecasting Solar Terms in Ancient Times) 35. Hutian Algorithm (Arc Field Method) 36. The Theory of Sphere-Heavens 37. Jianfen Algorithm (The Algorithm for Subtraction of Fractions) 38. Jinyou Algorithm (Scaling Method) 39. Twelve Meridians 40. Jiu Yao (Nine Luminaries) 41. A Calendar Book with Notes 42. Juju Qingshe 43. Junshu Algorithm (Fair Distribution Algorithms) 44. Root Extraction Algorithms 45. Kanyu (Geomantic Omen) 46. A Guest Star 47. The Needham Puzzle 48. The Chronicle 49. The Almanac 50. The Epoch 51. Rahu and Ketu 52. Unified Temperament and Uniform Weights and Measures 53. The Arts of Seven Luminaries 54. The Method of Reducing Fractions to a Common Denominator 55. Qi 56. The Length of the Sun ́s Shadow in One Place Was One Cun (Ell) Shorter at Noon Than That in the Other Place 1000 Li Away 57. The Method of Three Scale Fall and Rise 58. Three Zhengs 59. Twelve Two-Hour Periods 60. 12 Times 61. The Equal-Interval Temperament 62. 11 Luminaries 63. Shichen (Time, One of the 12 Two-Hour Periods into Which the Day Was Traditionally Divided) 64. Shichuan-Shiyan (The Astrology Political Events Illustration in Ancient Time) 65. Cuifen Algorithm 66. To Check the Level Ground with the Water Level and a Hanging Cord 67. The Silk Road 68. Sixiang (Four Emblematic Symbols) 69. Siyu (Four Imaginary Stars) 70. Siyuan Shu (Solution to Multivariable High-Order Equations) 71. Four Diagnostic Methods 72. The Precession of the Equinoxes 73. Sunyi Algorithm (Restoration and Cancellation) 74. Taisui Dating Method 75. Decoction 76. The Sky Tilts from the North to the South and the Southeast Is Low-Lying Areas 77. Interaction Between Heaven and Mankind 78. Tianyuan Shu (The Way to Write the Equation) 79. Round Sky and Square Earth 80. Tuibu (Calculate the Calendar) 81. Theory of Epidemic Febrile Disease 82. The Five Elements 83. Five-Tone Scale and Twelve Temperaments 84. The Five-Star Convergence 85. Five Planets Alignment 86. Wu Bu Zhi Shu (Chinese Remainder Theorem) 87. Phenology/Biotemperature 88. The Chinese Origins of Western Learning 89. The Debate on the Distance of the Sun 90. Pinhole Imaging 91. The Asterism System 92. Xuanye Shuo (Firmament Hypothesis) 93. Transition and Modulation 94. Xuanji Yuheng (Instrument on Astronomy Observation) 95. Medicine 96. Lunar Calendar/Solar Calendar/Lunisolar Calendar 97. Yin-Yang 98. Yinhuo Shouxin 99. The Ying Buzu Shu (Method of Excess and Deficit) 100. Pi, π (The Ratio of a Circle ́s Circumference to Its Diameter) 101. Zengcheng Method for the Extraction of Roots 102. Zhaocha Shu (Finite Difference Method) 103. Zhitu Liuti (Six Principles of Cartograpy) 104. Intercalation 105. Zhong ti xi yong (Adopting Western Knowledge for Its Practical Use While Keeping Chinese Values as the Core) 106. Zhongcha Method (A Method for Determining the Distance and Height of the Sun) 107. Calculation with an Abacus 108. Muhe Fanggai Events 1. Lectures in the Ever-spring Palace 2. Chongzhen ́s Altering the Calendar 3. Da Yan Calendar Base on the Navagraha 4. The Dispute Between Sphere Heavens Theory and Canopy Heavens Theory 5. The Calendar Case in Early Kangxi Reign 6. Synthetic Crystalline Bovine Insulin 7. When an Eclipse Happens, the Emperor Solicits Critical Opinions 8. The Astronomical Surveying over the Whole Country 9. The Calendar Reform in the Time of Taichu 10. Jamal al-Din Submitted Seven Astronomical Instruments 11. Zheng He ́s Voyages to the Western Oceans 12. International Plague Conference Techniques 1. Sericulture and Silk Weaving 2. Human-Powered Ships 3. China 4. Embroidery 5. The General Cannon 6. The Superposition Casting 7. Rolling Water Lift 8. Black Powder/Gunpowder 9. Autopsy with Red Light 10. Pattern Card 11. Fire Spear/Blunderbuss 12. Fire Arrows 13. Metal Mold Casting 14. Silver and Gold Plating 15. Clay Mold Method 16. Ceramics 17. Alchemy 18. Two Bombs and One Satellites (Atomic Bomb, Hydrogen Bomb, and Artificial Satellite) 19. Gilding 20. Ridge Planting/Tillage 21. Terra-Cotta Warriors 22. Bronze Crossbow Machine 23. Qiu Shi Fang (Urine Preparation) 24. Making Wine with the Distiller ́s Yeast 25. Human Variolation 26. Three Famous Brocades 27. Pig Iron Casting 28. Dewaxing Casting/Lost Wax Casting 29. Shuidui (Water-Powered Trip-Hammer) 30. Watertight Bulkhead 31. Water Raft 32. Sinan (Compass in A