The Neolithic Settlement of Knossos in Crete: New Evidence for the Early Occupation of Crete and the Aegean Islands (Prehistory Monographs)

The site of Knossos on the Kephala hill in central Crete is of great archaeological and historical importance for both Greece and Europe. Dating to 7000 B.C., it is the home of one of the earliest farming societies in southeastern Europe, and, in the later Bronze Age periods, it developed into a remarkable center of economic and social organization within the island, enjoying extensive relations with the Aegean, the Greek mainland, the Near East, and Egypt. After the systematic excavation of the deep Neolithic occupation levels by J.D. Evans in the late 1950s and later and more limited investigations of the Prepalatial deposits undertaken primarily during restoration work, no thorough exploration of the earliest occupation of the mound had been attempted. This monograph fills the gap, detailing the recent studies of the stratigraphy, architecture, ceramics, sedimentology, economy, and ecology that were a result of the opening of a new excavation trench in 1997. Together, these studies by 13 different contributors to the volume re-evaluate the importance of Neolithic Knossos and place it within the wider geographic context of the early island prehistory of the eastern Mediterranean. Table of Contents Contents: Preface, Alexandra Karetsou; Introduction, Nikos Efstratiou; 1. The Excavation, Nikos Efstratiou, Alexandra Karetsou, and Eleni Banou; 2. The Stratigraphy and Cultural Phases, Nikos Efstratiou; 3. Fabric Diversity in the Neolithic Ceramics of Knossos, Sarantis Dimitriadis; 4. Neolithic Sedimentology at Knossos, Maria-Pilar Fumanal García†; 5. The Economy of Neolithic Knossos: The Archaeobotanical Data, Anaya Sarpaki; 6. Wood Charcoal Analysis: The Local Vegetation, Ernestina Badal and Maria Ntinou; 7. Plant Economy and the Use of Space: Evidence from the Opal Phytoliths, Marco Madella.; 8. The Knossos Fauna and the Beginning of the Neolithic in the Mediterranean Islands, Manuel Pérez Ripoll; 9. The Earliest Settlement on Crete: An Archaeozoological Perspective, Liora Kolska Horwitz; 10. Radiocarbon Dates from the Neolithic Settlement of Knossos: An Overview, Yorgos Facorellis and Yiannis Maniatis; 11. Knossos and the Beginning of the Neolithic in Greece and the Aegean Islands, Nikos Efstratiou; Index. Table of Contents The Excavation The Stratigraphy and Cultural Phases Fabric Diversity in theNeolithic Ceramics of Knossos Neolithic Sedimentology at Knossos The Economy of Neolithic Knossos:The Archaeobotanical Data Wood Charcoal Analysis: The Local Vegetation Plant Economy and the Use of Space:Evidence from the Opal Phytoliths The Knossos Fauna and the Beginning of the Neolithicin the Mediterranean Islands The Earliest Settlement on Crete: An Archaeozoological Perspective Radiocarbon Dates from the Neolithic Settlement of Knossos: An Overview Knossos and the Beginning of the Neolithic in Greeceand the Aegean Islands Table 4.1. Correlation of sedimentology samples with excavation levels and cultural phases. Table 4.2. Munsell color and calculation of statistical parameters of mean size, sorting, skewness, and kurtosis for each of the analyzed sedimentology samples. Table 5.1. Seed list provided to J.D. Evans by Hans Helbaek (unpublished). *Helbaek did not separate einkorn from emmer grains. **Here he must have meant rachis fragment. Table 5.2. List of archaeobotanical samples from the 1997 rescue excavation, along with relative and absolute dates. *Only short-lived samples (i.e., seeds/grains) are included here. For all the others, see Facorellis and Maniatis (this volume, Ch. 10). Table 5.3. Aceramic Neolithic archaeobotanical sample E 97(30) from Knossos 1997 level 39, retrieved from 16 liters of water-floated soil. Values shown in parentheses represent fragments. *All fragments charred. **More like T. dicoccum but too fragmented. Table 5.4. Measurements of Triticum turgidum/aestivum from Aceramic and EN levels at Knossos. *L:B = ratio of length to breadth. **B/L x 100 = ratio of breadth to length multiplied by 100. ***L:T = ratio of length to thickness. Table 5.5. Measurements of Triticum dicoccum, Triticum monococcum, Hordeum vulgare, and Lens culinaris. *L:B = ratio of length to breadth. **L:T = ratio of length to thickness. ***B:T = ratio of breadth to thickness. Table 5.6. EN I archaeobotanical (seed) samples. *In addition to counted specimens, (+) = up to 10 fragments that cannot be counted; (++) = 11–50 fragments; (+++) > 50 fragments. Table 5.7. Measurements of Trifolium spp. and Leguminosae. *L:B = ratio of length to breadth. **L:T = ratio of length to thickness. ***B:T = ratio of breadth to thickness. Table 5.8. Measurements of Raphanus cf. raphanistrum and Linum cf. usitatissimum. *L:B = ratio of length to breadth. **L:T = ratio of length to thickness. ***B:T = ratio of breadth to thickness. Table 5.9. EN II archaeobotanical (seed) samples. *In addition to counted specimens, (+) = up to 10 fragments that cannot be counted; (++) = 11–50 fragments; (+++) > 50 fragments. Table 5.10. Vitis sp. measurements from EN II levels, analyzed with the formulas of Mangafa and Kotsakis (1996). Sketch of a grape seed showing locations of dimensions: BF = breadth of fossete; LF = length of fossete; LS = length of stalk; L = total lengt Table 5.11. MN archaeobotanical (seed) samples. *In addition to counted specimens, (+) = up to 10 fragments that cannot be counted; (++) = 11–50 fragments; (+++) > 50 fragments. Table 5.12. LN archaeobotanical (seed) samples. *In addition to counted specimens, (+) = up to 10 fragments that cannot be counted; (++) = 11–50 fragments; (+++) > 50 fragments. Table 6.1. Inventories of plants (listed alphabatically) growing in different parts of the study area. Table 6.2. Absolute and relative frequencies of taxa identified in the wood charcoal assemblages from Neolithic Knossos. Relative frequency of taxa has not been calculated for levels 20 and 7 due to the scarcity of wood charcoal. Table 6.3. Presence of plant taxa in wood charcoal assemblages from Neolithic Knossos, along with the total number of fragments analyzed and the total number of taxa identified in each level. Table 7.1. Knossos 1997: south profile phytolith counts. Table 7.2. Knossos 1997: west profile phytolith counts. Table 8.1. Number of identified and unidentified specimens by taxa and period. Table 8.2. Measurements of bones from Bos taurus according to the methodology of von den Driesch (1976). Table 8.3. Measurements of bones from Ovis aries (O.a.) and Capra hircus (C.h.) according to the methodology of von den Driesch (1976). Table 8.4. Measurements of bones from Sus scrofa domesticus, Sus scrofa ferus, Capra aegagrus, Martes, and Meles meles according to the methodology of von den Driesch (1976). Table 8.5. Number of identified specimens of Bos, Ovis/Capra, and Sus with number of marks caused by dog gnawing. Table 8.6. EN I and EN II faunal remains: list of number of identified specimens by level, with remarks on the bone parts, taphonomic marks, and bone age. Table 8.7. EN II/MN faunal remains: list of number of identified specimens by level, with remarks on the bone parts, taphonomic marks, and bone age. Table 8.8. MN faunal remains: list of number of identified specimens by level, with remarks on the bone parts, taphonomic marks, and bone age. Table 8.9a. LN faunal remains: list of number of identified specimens by level, with remarks on the bone parts, taphonomic marks, and bone age. Table 8.9b. LN faunal remains: list of number of identified specimens by level, with remarks on the bone parts, taphonomic marks, and bone age. Table 8.10. Number of identified specimens of Bos and Ovis/Capra/Sus with fire marks. Table 8.11. Number of long bone remains (the diaphyses fragments are not counted here), phalanges, and tarsi corresponding to mature and immature bones, along with the number of LN tooth remains, grouped by age, for comparison with the long bones. Table 8.12. Number of mandibles (NM) for goats and sheep from the LN levels classified by age. Table 8.13. Number of mandibles (NM) of Bos taurus classified by age. Table 8.14. Number of maxillary and mandibular remains of Sus scrofa domesticus classified by age. Table 8.15. Number of identified specimens of Bos taurus classified by sex on the basis of morphological features and bone measurements. Table 8.16. Number of identified specimens of Ovis aries (O.a.) and Capra hircus (C.h.) classified by sex on the basis of morphological features and bone measurements. Table 8.18. Percentages of identified specimens of domestic and wild species at Knossos and other sites. Table 8.19. Representation and abundance of various faunal species at Shillourokambos (Guilaine et al. 1996; Vigne 2000), Ais Yiorkis (Reese 1996, 1999), and Khirokitia (Davis 1987, 1994) (+ = abundant, ++ = very abundant). Table 8.20. Introduction and chronological representation of wild animals at various sites in Crete. Table 9.1. Relative frequencies (percentages) of animal species from Knossos based on NISP counts and the status of the animals as proposed here. Table 9.2. Schematic representation of the relative chronology (cal. b.c. dates) of sites mentioned in the text. Table 10.1. Summary of the British Museum (BM) radiocarbon dates on charcoal from the excavations of J.D. Evans at Neolithic Knossos, sorted by age. * Burleigh and Matthews 1982; ** Burleigh, Hewson, and Meeks 1977. Table 10.2. Description of the samples dated in the British Museum Research (BM) Laboratory. Table 10.3. Summary of radiocarbon dating results of carbonized samples collected in 1997 from the Neolithic settlement levels at Knossos. Frontispiece caption. Figure 1.1. Plan of the Palace of Knossos showing the Central Court and the location of the excavation. Figure 1.2. A: View of the Central Court of the Palace. B: View of the area of the rescue dig. C: View of the stratigraphy of the upper part of the trench; the positions of the samples taken for sedimentological analysis are also shown. Figure 1.3. Plan of the excavation trenches next to the staircase. Figure 1.4. South and west stratigraphic profiles of the trench, with indications of depths, excavation levels, soil characteristics, cultural periods, and architectural features. Figure 1.5. View of excavation level 4, showing hearth in northwest corner of the trench. Figure 1.6. Plans of excavation levels 9 and 10. Figure 1.7. Plan of excavation level 12, showing the round kouskouras feature (12A) in southwest corner. Figure 1.8. View of excavation level 12, showing kouskouras deposit and feature (12A) in southwest corner. Figure 1.9. Plan of excavation level 13. Figure 1.10. Plan of excavation level 14, showing hearth in northwest corner. Figure 1.11. View of excavation level 14, showing hearth in northwest corner (bottom left of photo). Figure 1.12. Plans of excavation levels 15 and 16, showing appearance of walls 1 and 2 running from north to south. Figure 1.13. View of excavation level 15 from above. Figure 1.14. View of excavation level 16 from above. Figure 1.15. View of excavation level 16 facing west section. Figure 1.17. View of level 17 facing west section. Figure 1.20. Plan of excavation level 21, showing walls 3, 4, 5, and 6. Figure 1.21. View of excavation level 21 from above. Figure 1.22. View of excavation level 23. Figure 1.23. View of excavation level 24, showing wall 7 and grinding stones. Figure 1.24. Plans of excavation levels 22 and 24. Figure 1.25. Plan of excavation level 27. Figure 1.26. View of excavation level 28 from above. Figure 1.27. View of excavation level 28 facing west profile. Figure 1.28. Plans of excavation levels 29–29a and 30–30a, showing walls and hearths. Figure 1.29. View of level 29A, showing hearths 1, 2, and 3. Figure 1.30. View of excavation level 30, showing hearth 4. Figure 1.31. View of excavation level 30, showing hearth 4 and the elliptical structure. Figure 1.33. View of excavation level 31. Figure 1.34. Plans of excavation levels 31, 32, and 34, showing hearths 5, 6, and 7. Figure 1.35. Plan of excavation level 37, showing pits 1 and 2. Figure 2.1. Sedimentological samples of the middle part of the south profile. Figure 4.1. Fine fraction granulometry (phi scale) of the samples from the west profile. Figure 4.3. The carbonate content of the samples from the west profile: percentage of general calcimetry (left) and percentage of Bernard calcimetry (right). Figure 4.4. Morphoscopy of sands without acid treatment. Figure 4.5. Morphoscopy of sands after the elimination of calcareous grains (subsequent to acid treatment). Figure 5.1. Drawing of Triticum turgidum L./T. aestivum from the 1997 excavations at Knossos (A. Kontonis). Figure 5.2. Graphs of measurements and measurement ratios of Triticum turgidum/aestivum from Neolithic Knossos. EN II specimens are graphed on the left side of the horizontal axis, with EN I specimens in the center and Aceramic specimens on the right. Ave Figure 5.3. Measurements of Triticum turgidum/aestivum from Aceramic and Early Neolithic Knossos compared with average values for Erbaba, Ramad, and Bouqras in the Near East. Jacomet’s values for lax-eared and dense-eared forms are derived from data poole Figure 5.4. Graphs of measurements and measurement ratios of Lens culinaris from Neolithic Knossos. Figure 5.5. Early sites including those from mainland Greece where Triticum turgidum/aestivum is reported: 1. Tell Abu Hureyra, 2. Tell Halula, 3. Tell Aswad, 4. Tell Ghoraife, 5. Tell Sabi Abyad, 6. Servia, 7. Cafer Höyük, 8. Dhali Agridhi, 9. Otzaki, 10 Figure 5.6. Summary of the distribution of all categories of archaeobotanical remains at Neolithic Knossos. Figure 6.1. Climate and topography of Knossos. A. Mean annual precipitation in Crete (after Rackham and Moody 1996). B. Topographic map of the area around Knossos. C. West–east topographic section. D. Southwest–northeast topographic section. The numbers Figure 6.2. Present-day vegetation in the study area. A. View of the Knossos valley from Mt. Juktas. B. Panoramic view of the site of Knossos. C. Phrygana vegetation on the hills. D. Vegetation on deep soils. Photos by E. Badal. Figure 6.3. Anatomy of plant taxa identified in wood charcoal assemblages from Neolithic Knossos. Photos by M. Ntinou. Figure 6.4. Wood charcoal diagram from Neolithic Knossos showing relative frequencies of taxa in successive excavation levels. Relative frequencies of taxa are calculated on the basis of the fragments identified. Black squares indicate presence of taxa in Figure 7.2. Bar chart of C3 and C4 phytolith percentage frequencies from the south profile. Figure 7.3. West profile stratigraphy and sampling. Figure 7.4. Bar chart of phytolith percentage frequencies from the west profile. Figure 7.5. Bar chart of C3 and C4 phytolith percentage frequencies from the west profile. Figure 7.6. Trench section (southwest corner to west face) with phases identified according to phytolith composition and frequencies. Figure 7.7. Silica skeleton from grass leaf (long cells and a stomata) from the EN I deposits (sample XXa, level 32). Figure 7.9 Silica skeleton from a dicotyledonous plant from the EN I deposits (sample XIV, level 30). Figure 7.10. Millet-type silica skeleton from the EN II deposits (sample Xa, level 16). Figure 8.1. Percentages of the osseous parts of cattle long bones. Figure 8.2. Percentages of the osseous parts belonging to the long bones of middle-sized mammals (goats, sheep, and pigs). Figure 8.3. Skeletal fragments of long bones of Ovis/Capra from level 14, all with dog-gnawing marks: two fragments of radius diaphysis, a fragment of tibia diaphysis, a metacarpus diaphysis, and a metatarsus diaphysis. Photo by author. Figure 8.4. Fragments of proximal epiphyses of femur and tibia of Bos taurus with fracture marks caused by impacts from the extraction of marrow, level 24. Photo by author. Figure 8.5. Radius diaphysis (A), radius proximal part (B), scapula (C), fragment of femur (D), and phalanx I (E) of Capra aegagrus, level 3. Photo by author. Figure 8.6. Distal metacarpus of Capra aegagrus and Ovis aries. Photo by author. Figure 8.7. A. Ulna in lateral view probably belonging to a wild boar (level 23); B. Sus scrofa ferus: canine fragment (level 10); C. Sus scrofa domesticus: ulna in lateral view (level 14). Photo by author. Figure 8.8. Diaphysis width range (SD) of Sus scrofa domesticus and Sus scrofa ferus from Zambujal (Portugal), Cerro de la Virgen (Spain), Argissa-Magula, and Knossos. Figure 8.9. Meles meles: A. left mandible in lateral view (level 14); B. lower canine (level 14); C. left ulna in medial views; the proximal epiphysis is not fused (level 3). Martes: D. distal part of humerus in cranial view (level 9). Photo by author. Figure 8.10. Age classes of the mandibles of Ovis and Capra. Figure 8.12. Distal part of metacarpus belonging to a male (possibly ox) of Bos taurus, with osseous deformations on the articular surfaces. Photo by author. Figure 8.13. Age classes of Sus scrofa domesticus maxillae and mandibles. Figure 8.14. Correlation of the measurements of phalanx I belonging to Bos taurus: proximal breadth (Bp) and maximum peripheral longitude (great long peripheric; GLpe). The circles indicate the distribution of the values by sex (males have larger measurem Figure 9.1. Map showing location of sites mentioned in the text: 1. Ashkelon, 2.‘Ain Ghazal, 3. Atlit Yam, 4. Hagoshrim and Tel Ali, 5. Ras Shamra, 6. Cap Andreas Kastros, 7. Khirokitia, 8. Tenta, 9. Asikli Höyük, 10. Mersin, 11. Can Hasan III, 12. Çatalh Figure 9.2. Adult male agrimi (Capra aegagrus cretica) showing phenotypic resemblance to the wild bezoar goat. Figure 10.1. Distribution of calibrated dates sorted by stratum of the samples from the excavations of J.D. Evans, dated at the radiocarbon unit of the Research Laboratory of the British Museum (BM). The length of the bars represents the age range; the he Figure 10.2. Distribution of calibrated dates sorted by depth of the samples from the 1997 archaeological campaign dated at the radiocarbon unit of the Laboratory of Archaeometry of N.C.S.R. Demokritos (DEM) and at the Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit of the Index

Section 508 Compliant The site of Knossos on the Kephala hill in central Crete is of great archaeological and historical importance for both Greece and Europe. Dating to 7000 B.C., it is the home of one of the earliest farming societies in southeastern Europe, and, in the later Bronze Age periods, it developed into a remarkable center of economic and social organization within the island, enjoying extensive relations with the Aegean, the Greek mainland, the Near East, and Egypt. After the systematic excavation of the deep Neolithic occupation levels by J.D. Evans in the late 1950s and later and more limited investigations of the Prepalatial deposits undertaken primarily during restoration work, no thorough exploration of the earliest occupation of the mound had been attempted. This monograph fills the gap, detailing the recent studies of the stratigraphy, architecture, ceramics, sedimentology, economy, and ecology that were a result of the opening of a new excavation trench in 1997. Together, these studies by 13 different contributors to the volume re-evaluate the importance of Neolithic Knossos and place it within the wider geographic context of the early island prehistory of the eastern Mediterranean.