The Missing Gene: Psychiatry, Heredity, and the Fruitless Search for Genes (Hc)

What causes psychiatric disorders to appear? Are they primarily the result of people s environments, or of their genes? Increasingly, we are told that research has confirmed the importance of genetic influences on psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This timely, challenging book provides a much-needed critical appraisal of the evidence cited in support of genetic theories of psychiatric disorders, which hold that these disorders are caused by an inherited genetic predisposition in combination with environmental agents or events. In fact, the field of psychiatric genetics is approaching the crisis stage due to the continuing failure, despite years of concerted worldwide efforts, to identify genes presumed to underlie most mental disorders. The belief that such genes exist is based on studies of families, twins, and adoptees. However, the author shows that these studies provide little if any scientifically acceptable evidence in support of genetics. In fact, researchers initial "discoveries" are rarely replicated. As this becomes more understood, and as fruitless gene finding efforts continue to pile up, we may well be headed towards a paradigm shift in psychiatry away from genetic and biological explanations of mental disorders, and towards a greater understanding of how family, social, and political environments contribute to human psychological distress. Indeed, Kenneth Kendler, a leading twin researcher and psychiatric geneticist for over two decades, wrote in a 2005 edition of The American Journal of Psychiatry that the "strong, clear, and direct causal relationship implied by the concept of a gene for ... does not exist for psychiatric disorders. Although we may wish it to be true, we do not have and are not likely to ever discover genes for psychiatric illness." The author devotes individual chapters to ADHD, autism, and bipolar disorder. Looking specifically at autism, despite the near-unanimous opinion that it has an important genetic component, the evidence cited in support of this position is stunningly weak. It consists mainly of family studies, which cannot disentangle the potential influences of genes and environment, and four small methodologically flawed twin studies whose results can be explained by non-genetic factors. Not surprisingly, then, years of efforts to find "autism genes" have come up empty. This is an important book because theories based on genetic research are having a profound impact on both scientific and public thinking, as well as on social policy decisions. In addition, genetic theories influence the types of clinical treatments received by people diagnosed with psychiatric disorders. Yet, as the author demonstrates, these theories do not stand up to critical examination. Genetic research in psychiatry has reached the crisis stage due to the continuing failure to identify the genes presumed to cause many of today's most troubling mental disorders. Dr. Joseph presents a clearly argued explanation for this failure, and warns that by focusing on the wrong goal, precious resources are diverted from the search for real causes and treatments. We were supposed to have discovered the genes that cause mental disorders by now; but we have not. Unfortunately, researchers and reviewers almost never consider the possibility that genes for the major psychiatric conditions have not been identified for one insuperable reason: they do not exist. At bottom, the search for genes in psychiatry is based on the uncritical acceptance of the results of family, twin and adoption studies. Professionals, students and the public must be informed that these studies do not provide scientifically acceptable evidence in support of genetics. What causes psychological distress? Are we shaped primarily by our environment or by our genes? These very old questions remain controversial. Quantitative genetic tests such as family, twin and adoption studies have laid the foundations for the current worldwide effort to identify the genes presumed to underlie psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, A.D.H.D., autism and so on. This book argues that molecular genetic researchers take a hard second look at these foundations, which are far weaker than they believe. This book is urgently needed. The results of genetic research have a profound effect on both scientific and public thinking, as well as on social policy decisions. This book presents an alternative view to the one that currently dominates psychiatry and psychology. The author calls for a paradigm shift in psychiatry away from genetic explanations of mental disorders, and towards a greater understanding of how family, social and political environments contribute to human psychological distress. This book is destined to play an important role in this shift. Like The Gene Illusion, it will be a controversial book and is sure to spark intense discussion The twin method: science or pseudoscience? ADHD genetic research: activity deserving of attention, or studies disordered by deficits? A critique of the spectrum concept as used in the Danish-American schizophrenia adoption studies Pellagra and genetic research A generation misinformed: psychiatry and psychology textbooks' inaccurate accounts of schizophrenia adoption research Irving Gottesman's 1991 schizophrenia genesis: a primary scource of misinformation on the genetics of schizophrenia Autism and genetics: much ado about very little The 1942 "Euthanasia" debate in the American Journal of Psychiatry The twin method's Achilles' heel: a critical review of the equal environment assumption test literature Bipolar disorder and genetics Genotype or genohype? the fruitless search for genes in psychiatry. Annotation Researchers still haven't found the genes that underlie schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ADHD, and autism; perhaps they do not exist. A genetic researcher in psychiatry and psychology urges we return our focus to family, social, and political environments as the sources of psychological distress