The method of the Vedanta : a critical account of the Advaita tradition / Swami Satchidanandendra Sarasvati ; transl. from the Sanskrit by A. J. Alston

The present large-scale work is not exactly a history or a reference book or a reader, but it has something of the character of all three. Its purpose is to establish a clear view of the traditional Advaita Vedanta based on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras as systematized by Gaudapada, Saakara and SureSvara, unencumbered by the mass of conflicting theories developed by later authors of the school. Instead of crediting Sankara with an ontology, a cosmology, an epistemology and the other paraphernalia of traditional western metaphysics, the author concentrates on his theological method, and shows how he interpreted the texts that conmunicate to the student a direct awareness of his true nature as the Self of all by the process of ‘false attribution followed by later retraction'. The characteristic views of the later authors are examined, in varying degrees of detail, to see where they throw light on this teaching which leads to direct awareness of the Self, and where, more frequently, they misunderstand and obscure it. Attention is paid to Bhartrprapafica and other pre-Sahkara Vedanta theorists, and a chapter is accorded to Bhaskara as a characteristic representative of conscious opposition to Sankara within the Vedanta fold. Original scans available at https://archive.org/details/the-method-of-the-vedanta-a-critical-account-of-the-advaita-tradition-swami-satchidanandendra THE METHOD OF THE VEDANTA TITLE PAGE FOREWORD CONTENTS TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABBREVIATIONS LATIN TERMS SECTION HEADINGS INTRODUCTION The Method of Communicating the Supreme Reality in the Upanishads The Sense in which the Upanishads are an Authoritative Means of Knowledge Superimposition and its Removal do not affect the Absolute This is the only Method of interpreting the Upanishads sanctioned by Tradition Reasons for the Composition of the present Work The Special Features of the Present Work Conclusion CHAPTER 1 THE NEED FOR ESTABLISHING THE TRUE METHOD 1. The Traditional Method of the Vedanta that has been handed down by an unbroken Succession of Gurus, beginning with Brahma 2. Though the Method has been clearly proclaimed in the Three Starting-Points of the Vedanta Tradition (prasthana-traya), Confusion has been introduced by various Teachers 3. Difficulty of recognizing the true Method caused by the Rise of New Schools 4. An Objection raised by modern Students 5. One attempted Solution to the problem: the View that the various Formulations of the Method are due to varying Degrees of Ability in different Students 6. Examination of this attempted Solution 7. Another ill-informed Attempt to show that the different Theories do not conflict 8. Examination of this Solution 9. The Need for an Attempt to explain the Recognition of the true Method 10. Rules to be followed in determining the Method CHAPTER II SURVEY OF THE MATERIAL COMPRISING THE THREE STARTING-POINTS OF THE VEDANTA (THE UPANISHADS, THE GITA AND THE BRAHMA SUTRAS) 11. Why the Work begins with a Survey of the Starting-Points 12. The Subjects covered in the Upanishads 13. The Difficulty for those of dull Intellect in arriving at the true Method of the Vedanta from a mere Consideration of the Upanishads alone 14. The Subjects treated in the Gita 15. One cannot determine the Method just through the Gita either 16. A Topical Analysis of the Brahma Sitras as a fundamental Starting-Point of the Vedanta 17. The true Method of the Vedanta is not easily discoverable from an Examination of the Brahma Sutras either CHAPTER III EXAMINATION OF THE COMMENTARIES OF SRI SANKARA BHAGAVATPADA 18. How the Teacher Sankara Bhagavatpada belongs to the true Tradition 19. The traditional Method accepted by Sankara Bhagavatpada 20. The Method of False Attribution followed by Retraction underlies other forms of Vedanta Teaching 21. The Absolute can only be revealed through False Attribution followed by Retraction 22. The Root of all False Attribution, known as Metaphysical Ignorance 23. The Causes, Nature and Results of Ignorance 24. The Causes, Nature and Result of Enlightenment 25. How being capable of Experience through valid Means of Empirical Knowledge and being Capable of Action are states arising through Ignorance 26. The Texts dealing with Injunctions and Prohibitions proceed on the Basis of Ignorance 27. The Texts concerned with Liberation apply to those afflicted with Ignorance — but with a Difference 28. How the Veda is the Final Means of Knowledge 29. The Notions of Knowledge and Ignorance pertain to the Sphere of Ignorance only 30. The Cancellation of the Three Kinds of Ignorance, through Knowledge 31. How Vedic Tradition and Inference lead on to Direct Experience 32. Methods of Teaching the Absolute through Doctrines of Cause and Effect, etc., are Variants that are subsidiary to the main Method 33. The Distinction between Cause and Effect 34. Creation is accepted as Real from a Practical Standpoint to help one Class of Students 35. Two Doctrines: the Effect is real before Production: Origination is illusory 36. Vedic Support for the last two Points 37. The Method of Communicating the true Nature of the Absolute indirectly through Attributing to it the false Notions of Universal and Particular 38. The Method of Communicating the true Nature of the Absolute indirectly through Recourse to the Notions of Seer and Seen 39. Communicating the Absolute through Discriminating it from the Five Sheaths 40. Communicating the true Nature of the Self through a Discrimination of the Three (apparent) States of Waking, Dream and Dreamless Sleep 41. How the true Nature of the Individual Soul is Being or the Absolute 42. How the Self is of the Nature of Consciousness 43. The Self is ever void of the States 44. How the Self’s Appearance of having Three Forms is Illusory 45. Distinction between the Individual Soul and the Lord negated through a Consideration of the Three States 46. How the Self is in no way touched by Practical Experience 47. What does it mean to speak of the Falsity of Duality? 48. How in the State of Empirical Experience a Distinction among Means of Knowledge is observed 49. Texts on the Absolute without Adjuncts affirm its Existence: Texts on the Absolute with Adjuncts prescribe Themes for Meditation 50. Certain Vedic Texts proclaim the Existence and true Nature of the Absolute 51. The Higher and Lower Absolute 52. The Difference between Knowledge and Prescribed Meditations 53. The Means to Knowledge 54. Alternative Combinations of the means to Knowledge 55. The Limits of Spiritual Practice 56. The Difference between prescribed Symbolic Meditations (upasana) and Sustained Contemplation of the Absolute (nididhyasana) 57. The Learning and other Virtues to be pursued by the Renunciate seeking Liberation fall within Ignorance 58. After the Rise of Metaphysical Knowledge there is only Absorption in the Self and no Action 59. Liberation is nothing other than that firm Establishment in the Self that prevails when ignorance has been cancelled 60. The Two Forms of Liberation, and how Liberation in Life is Superior 61. No Distinctions of Kind are found in Liberation as the result of Metaphysical Knowledge CHAPTER IV EXAMINATION OF SOME PRE-SANKARA SCHOOLS 62. How the present Chapter relates to what precedes and follows 63. The View that the entire Veda teaches that Action alone is the Means to Liberation 64. View that the Upanishads relate to Ritual by explaining the Nature of the Soul and so on 65. The View that Liberation comes through the Avoidance of optional Ritual and Forbidden Acts 66. The Doctrine that Liberation is achieved by a Combination of Knowledge and Action 67. Knowledge identified with Meditation: the Absolute made subordinate to Injunctions to Meditate 68. The View of those who accept an Injunction in the Context of Metaphysical Knowledge 69. Knowledge of the Self only comes through the practice of repeated Affirmation (Prasankhyana Vada) 70. The Doctrine of the Elimination of the Universe 71. The Doctrine of Liberation through Elimination of Pleasure-desire 72. The View that Liberation comes from halting the Impressions of the Three States of Waking, Dream and Dreamless Sleep 73. The View that Liberation results from Obedience to an Injunction to sustain Remembrance of Knowledge 74. The View that Liberation arises from an Injunction to suppress all Movement of the Mind 75. The Doctrine of the Bhagavatas CHAPTER V BHARTRPRAPANCA 76. The Need for Examining the System of Bhartrprapanca 77. Cause and Effect in the School of Difference in Identity 78. The Eight Conditions of the Absolute 79. The Constious Individual as Modification of the Absolute 80. The Distinction between the Seer and his Seeing 81. Explanation of the Class of Texts like ‘Though seeing, yet He does not see’ 82. The Qualifications for Knowledge of the Absolute 83. Examination of the Three States 84. Discussion of Liberation 85. The Intermediate Stage 86. Hearing, Pondering and Sustained Meditation 87. The Doctrine of Liberation through a Combination of Knowledge and Ritual 88. Rising above the Divine Wealth CHAPTER VI MANDANA 89. The Need for examining the Positions of the various Interpreters 90. The Pre-eminence of Suresvara among the Interpreters 91. Why the Position of Mandana has to be examined first 92. The Nature of Metaphysical Ignorance in Mandana’s System 93. The Indeterminability of Metaphysical Ignorance 94. The Seat of Ignorance 95. The Cessation of Natural Ignorance 96. Doctrine of the Cancellation of Illusion 97. Experience through the Means of Valid Knowledge 98. Objections and Answers regarding the Authority of the Veda 99. Objections and Answers to the Possibility of the Words of the Veda communicating the Absolute 100. The Combination of Repeated Meditation and Ritualistic Action as the Means to Liberation 101. The Method for obtaining Liberation 102. Sympathy with other Advaita Theories 103. Summary of Mandana CHAPTER VII SURESVARA 104. The Works of the Author of the Vartika 105. The close Connection between the Brahma Siddhi and the Sambandha Vartika 106. The rival Doctrines examined in the Sambandha Vartika 107. Refutation of Mandana’s Positions in the Vartika 108. The Treatment of the Doctrine of Bhartryprapanca in the Vartika 109. Because the Unity and Sole Reality of the Self expresses itself by Nature as Awareness it is Self-evident 110. Metaphysical Ignorance in Suresvara 111. Objections and Answers on the Subject of Metaphysical Ignorance 112. The Treatment of Ignorance by Sri Sankara and Suresvara compared 113. Enquiry into the Seat of Ignorance and the Object which it conceals 114. The Operation of the Means of Knowledge 115. The Cancellation of Illusion 116. Authority of the Veda: Role of Negative Texts 117. Perception, etc., cannot contradict the Veda 118. Treatment of the Topic of Cause and Effect 119. The Treatment of Universal and Particular 120. The Treatment of the Discrimination of the Five Sheaths 121. The Distinction between Subject and Object 122. Teaching by Examination of the Three States of Waking, Dream and Dreamless Sleep 123. Can there be an Injunction for Knowledge? 124. Can there be Injunctions for Hearing, Pondering and Sustained Meditation? 125. Comparison of Sri Sankara and Suregvara on the Topic of Hearing and the Rest 126. The Injunction for Inner and Outer Control and the other Disciplines 127. How Action and Meditation relate 128. There is no other Liberation except Eradication of Ignorance 129. All Duality is imagined through Ignorance 130. The Form of Non-duality approved in the Vartika CHAPTER VIII THE PANCAPADIKA 131. The Need for an Examination of the System of the Pancapadika 132. The Nature of Ignorance according to the Pancapadika 133. What is the Proof of Ignorance? 134. The Effect of Ignorance 135. Did the Doctrine of Ignorance as Material Cause of the World originate with the Pancapadika? 136. The Definition of Superimposition in the System of the Pancapadika 137. Why are Different Theories of Superimposition Mentioned? 138. The two Examples adduced in Sri Sankara’s Commentary to illustrate Superimposition 139. The Defect of Ignorance as the Cause of the Distinctions amongst the Individual Souls 140. Superimposition and Empirical Experience are One and the same Thing 141. The Ego-Superimposition 142. The Self as the Object of the Notion ‘I’ 143. The Ego-Notion 144. The Examples of Superimposition given in the Pancapadika 145. The Identity of Superimposition and Ignorance 146. Empirical Experience through the Means of Valid Knowledge 147. The Immediately Evident Character of the Object of Knowledge 148. Answers to Objections about the Authenticity of the Upanishadic Teaching 149. Direct Experience of the Self 150. Refutation of the Doctrine that the Absolute is taught as an Appendage to the Injunction to Meditate 151. How can Beginningless Ignorance have an End? 152. The Treatment of Cause and Effect 153. The Treatment of the Three States 154. Examination of the Means to Metaphysical Knowledge 155. Summary of the Pancapadika CHAPTER IX ‘BHASKARA 156. The Place of the Doctrine of Bhaskara in the History of Vedantic Thought 157. The Tradition followed by Bhaskara 158. The Author of the ‘Vrtti’ and the Author of the ‘Vakya’ referred to by Bhaskaracarya 159. The Divisions of Subject-Matter in the Brahma Sutras according to Bhaskara 160. Treatment of the Topic of Ignorance 161. The Authority of Perception, etc., and the Authority of the Veda 162. The Relation of Vedic Revelation and Reason 163. The Prime Importance of the Cause-Effect Relation in the System of Bhaskara 164. The Treatment of Cause and Effect 165. Refutation of the Doctrine of the Unreality of the Effect 166. The Doctrine that the Self undergoes real Transformation 167. Refutation of the Doctrine of Maya 168. The Doctrine of the Reality of the Effect before Production 169. The Relation between the Individual Soul and the Lord 170. The Empirical Experience of the Individual Soul 171. The Method of Discrimination of the Five Sheaths 172. Bhaskara on the Discrimination of the Three States 173. Reflection over the Means to Liberation 174. The Rewards of Knowledge and Action 175. Repeated Practice of Hearing, Pondering and Sustained Meditation 176. The Relation of Knowledge and Yoga 177. The Description of Liberation 178. Summary of the Examination of Bhaskara’s System CHAPTER X THE BHAMATI 179. Padmapada, Suresvara and Vacaspati as Sub-Commentators on the Commentaries of Sri Sankara 180. The Works of Vacaspati Misra 181. The Place of the Bhamati School in Vedanta 182. The Two ‘Ignorances’ in the System of the Bhamati 183. The Definition of Superimposition 184. Consideration of Superimposition as Superimposition of an Object 185. How far does the Definition of Ignorance agree with the Characteristics that have to be Defined? 186. The Begininglessness of Ignorance 187. The Seat of Ignorance 188. The Plurality of Ignorance 189. The Cause of Ignorance 190. How the Interplay of the Means of Knowledge and their Objects is based on Ignorance 191. The Validity of the Veda 192. The Relation between Revelation and Reason 193. The True Subject-Matter of Vedic Teaching 194. The Treatment of Cause and Effect 195. The Unmanifest 196. The Superimposition of the Notion that one is an Individual Soul 197. The Relation between the Absolute and the Individual Soul 198. Refutation of the Doctrine of Difference in Identity 199. The Discrimination of the Five Sheaths 200. Dream in the Context of the Discrimination of the Three States 201. Dreamless Sleep in the Context of the Discrimination of the Three States 202. Liberation is Eternal as it is one’s State when one has realized one’s own True Nature 203. Liberation in Life 204. The Means to Liberation 205. Hearing, Pondering and Sustained Meditation 206. Refutation of the Notion of an Injunction for Knowledge: The Doctrine of Immediate Intuition 207. The School which holds that Immediate Intuition cannot arise merely from hearing the Supreme Texts 208. Concluding Summary CHAPTER XI THE ISTA SIDDHI 209. Refutation of the Bhamati School along with Revival of the Doctrine of Root-Ignorance 210. High Reputation of Vimuktatman, Author of the Ista Siddhi 211. The Main Point in the Book is the Establishment of Indeterminable Ignorance 212. The Division of Subject-Matter in the Book 213. The Opening Verse condensing the Teaching of the whole Work 214. Predominance of Dialectical Argumentation 215. Refutation of the Distinction between Subject and Object 216. The Author's Dialectical Method 217. Because the World is Indeterminable, Non-Duality is Safeguarded 218. Proof that the Universe is the Effect of the Indeterminable Illusory Power of Ignorance 219. The Relation between the Absolute, Maya and the World 220. The Treatment of Cause and Effect 221. Ignorance as the Cause of Purely Phenomenal Objects (Pratibhasika Artha) 222. Ignorance (Ajnana) is Different from Error, Doubt and Absence of Knowledge 223. Theories of Error 224. The Nature of Ignorance of the Shell 225. Ignorance of the Shell does not truly exist 226. How do the Means of Valid Cognition operate? 227. The Termination of Ignorance 228. What is the Cessation of Indeterminable Ignorance? 229. Ignorance of the Absolute terminated by Stages 230. Knowledge of the Absolute causes Immediate Intuition through removing Ignorance of the Absolute 231. A Modicum of Ignorance accompanies even the one who has attained Direct and Immediate Knowledge 232. Refutation of the Systems of Mandana and others 233. Refutation of Non-Dualism as conceived in the Theory of the Absolute as Word 234. Acceptance of the Doctrine of Positive Non-Duality 235. Defence against Opponents’ Objections 236. Summary CHAPTER XII THE VIVARANA 237. The Context of the Work 238. Superimposition has False Ignorance (Mithya Ajnana) for its Material Cause 239. Demonstration of the Nature of Metaphysical Ignorance 240. Threefold Cause of the Superimposition of the Not-Self onto the Self 241. The Seat of Ignorance and the Object it conceals 242. The Distinction between the Soul and the Absolute 243. The Ego-Superimposition 244. The Soul as a Reflection of the Absolute 245. Refutation of the Theory of Delimitation (Avaccheda Vada) 246. Ignorance in Dreamless Sleep 247. Ignorance is not a Material Cause introducing a Distinction between the Soul and the Absolute 248. Explanation of Knower, Knowing and Known 249. Proof of Superimposition 250. Shell-Silver and so on as the Examples for Superimposition 251. Study of the Cancellation of Error 252. The Identity of Avidya and Maya 253. The Cessation of Ignorance 254. The Doctrine of the Impression of Ignorance (Avidya-Samskara) 259. The Absolute as the Cause of Vedic Tradition 256. The Absolute is known through Vedic Revelation even though it is an Already-Existent Entity 257. Reflection and Dialectic 258. Immediate Knowledge and the Means which lead to it 259. Hearing, Pondering and Sustained Meditation 260. How Action is an Aid to Knowledge 261. The Absolute is the Cause of the World 262. Summary of the Vivarana CHAPTER XIII THE NYAYA MAKARANDA 263. The Nyaya Makaranda 264. The Order of Topics in the Nyaya Makaranda 265. Refutation of Difference 266. Error is the Manifestation of an Object of Indeterminable Reality-Grade 267. Beginingless Indeterminable Ignorance 268. The Falsity of the Universe and the Self-Luminosity of the Self 269. Perception and the Rest have Practical Validity: the Veda has Validity because it communicates Truth 270. How the Upanishads can be an Authoritative Source of Knowledge 271. How the Upanishadic Texts refer to a Partless Entity 272. Examination of the Nature of Liberation 273. The Seat of Ignorance 274. The Means to Liberation 275. The Cessation of Ignorance 276. Summary of the Nyaya Makaranda CHAPTER XIV THE KHANDANA OF SRI HARSA 277. Links with New Methods 278. Introduction to Sri Harsa 279. Division of Topics in the Book 280. No Rule that both must agree on the Reality of the Means of Knowledge, etc., for a Debate 281. Even the Nihilist has a Right to enter into Debate 282. Idealism based on Self-Luminous Cognition 283. The Indeterminability of the Universe of Plurality 284. What is the Proof of Non-Duality? 285. Summary CHAPTER XV CITSUKHACARYA 286. The Philosophy of Citsukhacarya 287. Citsukhacarya’s Literary Output 288. The Contents of the Tattva Pradipika 289. Citsukha’s Manner of Expounding a Topic 290. Some Definitions and Proofs accepted by Citsukhacarya 291. Citsukhacarya’s Place in the History of Vedanta CHAPTER XVI SARVAJNATMAN 292. Who was Sarvajnatman? 293. The Importance of his Work 294. Ignorance alone is the Cause of Superimposition 295. The Purpose of the Vedanta and of this particular Work 296. Points about the Supreme Texts 297. The Veda is the Source of Knowledge of the Absolute 298. Miscellaneous Teachings from the Section on the Harmony of the Texts 299. The Absolute as Cause of the World 300. Examination of the Three States of Waking, Dream and Dreamless Sleep 301. Bare Consciousness is both the Seat of Ignorance and the Object concealed by it 302. Accounting for the Distinction between Bound and Liberated Souls 303. Metaphysical Knowledge and Liberation arise from Application to the Means of Knowledge 304. Liberation in Life 305. The Place of Sarvajiatman in the History of Vedanta SELECT INDEX OF CONCEPTS BIBLIOGRAPHY