The Making of Martyrdom in Modern Twelver Shī‘īsm: From Protesters and Revolutionaries to Shrine Defenders

Contents vii 3.1 War zones propaganda 6.1 Mohsen Hojaji being escorted moments before decapitation by ISIS fi ghters 6.2 Th e adaptation of Hojaji's capture painted by Hassan Rouholamin 6.3 Mourners attend the funeral procession of Hojaji in Tehran 6.4 A portrait of Qasem Soleimani on the main road to the airport in Beirut 6.5 Coffi ns of Qasem Soleimani and others killed by a U.S. drone strike surrounded by mourners during a funeral procession in Tehran 6.6 We are the nation of martyrdom 6.7 Artworks showing doctors during the Covid-19 pandemic like soldiers of the Iran-Iraq war 6.8 Celebration of Nowruz with Qasem Soleimani depicted as an element of the Haft -Sīn table Figures viii Th is is a study of martyrdom within the context of Islam. However, the focus of this work will be on martyrdom in Twelver Sh ī ' ī sm. I will particularly discuss the understanding and practice of martyrdom in modern Iran, especially since the 1979 Islamic revolution. Th e foundation of this book comes from my Ph.D. research. So, its development goes back to when I started my dissertation research on the subject of martyrdom at McMaster University's Department of Religious Studies. A lot has changed in the politics of the Muslim world since I started this study. Th e most notable development has been the outbreak of the Syrian civil war that turned into a full-fl edged sectarian confl ict and signifi cantly disrupted the social and political landscape of the Middle East. Th is book will address how the ongoing confl icts aff ected the understanding of martyrdom among the Sh ī ' ī tes in the region, with particular attention to Iran and the role of the Islamic Republic in channeling the zeal for martyrdom as it became directly involved in the proxy war in Syria. Completing this work required support from various individuals, and I am deeply indebted to many people whose support, assistance, and encouragement brought this book to fruition. I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my Ph.D. director, Professor Liyakat Takim. He gave me much needed direction and focus throughout my research for this project. I would also like to acknowledge my appreciation to the rest of my dissertation readers and members of the Department of Religious Studies at McMaster University for their helpful and insightful comments and suggestions: Cover Halftitle page Title page Copyright page Dedication Contents Figures Preface Introduction What is Martyrdom? Martyrdom from Bible to the Qur’an Previous Studies on Martyrdom in Islam Thesis and Plan 1 The Emergence of the Shī‘ī Form of Martyrdom Martyrs of the Community: Sectarian Factor Shī‘a Martyrdom Traditions 2 Martyrdom Revival in Twelver Shī‘īsm Diverging Paths: Martyrdom in Modern Sunnism vs. Modern Shī‘īsm Jihad, Martyrdom, and State-Building Changing the Gears: Reviving Martyrdom Among the Shī‘a Reopening of the Gates of Active Martyrdom: Historical Background 3 Revolution, War, and Martyrdom The 1979 Islamic Revolution and the Power of Martyrdom Iran–Iraq War and the Love of Martyrdom 4 Civic Martyrdom Lest We Forget: Iran’s Postwar State of Martyrdom Non-War-Zone Martyrs Rainbow Martyrdom: Politics of Blood 5 Martyrdom Reimagined Martyrdom Out of the Borders Shrine Defenders The Shī‘ī Symbolism of Shrine Defenders 6 Shrine Defenders: A New Beginning The Sectarian Factor The Imagined Nation of Heroes 7 From Karbalā to Damascus Appendix : Martyrdom in Classical Islam Martyrdom in Sunni Traditions Who is a Martyr? Merits of Martyrs Types of Martyrdom Rewards of Martyrdom Martyrdom in Sunni tafsīrs Notes Bibliography Index In Twelver Shi'a Islam, the wait for the return of the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Mahdi , at the end of time, overshadowed the value of actively seeking martyrdom. However, what is the place of martyrdom in Twelver Shi'ism today? This book shows that the Islamic revolution in Iran resulted in the marriage of Shi'i messianism and extreme political activism, changing the mindset of the Shi'a worldwide. Suddenly, each drop of martyrs' blood brought the return of al-Mahdi one step closer, and the Islamic Republic of Iran supposedly became the prelude to the foretold world revolution of al-Mahdi. Adel Hashemi traces the unexplored area of Shi'i discourse on martyrdom from the 1979 revolution-when the Islamic Republic's leaders cultivated the culture of martyrdom to topple the Shah's regime-to the dramatic shift in the understanding of martyrdom today. Also included are the reaction to the Syrian crisis, the region's war with ISIS and other Salafi groups, and the renewed commitment to the defense of shrines. This book shows the striking shifts in the meaning of martyrdom in Shi'ism, revealing the real relevance of the concept to the present-day Muslim world. "In Twelver Shi'a Islam, the wait for the return of the Twelth Imam, Hujjat-Allah al-Mahdi, at the end of time overshadowed the value of actively seeking martyrdom. But what is the place of martyrdom in Twelver Shi'ism today? This book shows that the Islamic revolution in Iran resulted in the marriage of Shi'i messianism and extreme political activism, changing of mindset among the Shi'a worldwide. Suddenly, each drop of martyrs' blood brought the return of al-Mahdi one step closer and the Islamic Republic of Iran became the prelude to the foretold world revolution of al-Mahdi. Adel Hashemi traces the unexplored area of Shi'i discourse on martyrdom from the 1979 revolution - when the Islamic Republic's leaders cultivated the culture of martyrdom to topple the Shah's regime - through to the dramatic shift in understanding of martyrdom today, including the reaction to the Syrian crisis, the war with ISIS and other Salafi groups in the region, and renewed commitment to the defence of shrines. This book reveals the striking shifts in the meaning of martyrdom in Shi'ism, revealing the real relevance of the concept to the present-day Muslim world"-- Provided by publisher In Twelver Shi’a Islam, the wait for the return of the Twelfth Imam, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Mahdī, at the end of time, overshadowed the value of actively seeking martyrdom. However, what is the place of martyrdom in Twelver Shi’ism today? This book shows that the Islamic revolution in Iran resulted in the marriage of Shi’i messianism and extreme political activism, changing the mindset of the Shi’a worldwide. Suddenly, each drop of martyrs’ blood brought the return of al-Mahdi one step closer, and the Islamic Republic of Iran supposedly became the prelude to the foretold world revolution of al-Mahdi. Adel Hashemi traces the unexplored area of Shi’i discourse on martyrdom from the 1979 revolution—when the Islamic Republic’s leaders cultivated the culture of martyrdom to topple the Shah’s regime—to the dramatic shift in the understanding of martyrdom today. Also included are the reaction to the Syrian crisis, the region's war with ISIS and other Salafi groups, and the renewed commitment to the defense of shrines. This book shows the striking shifts in the meaning of martyrdom in Shi'ism, revealing the real relevance of the concept to the present-day Muslim world.