The Making of China’s War with Japan : Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang

This cutting edge study examines the career of Chinese politician and diplomat Zhou Enlai (1898–1976) and assesses his leadership role in the Communist Party of China’s (CPC) strategy against the Japanese invasion of China which established the foundation for post-World War II Sino-Japanese relations. It considers how Zhou dealt with Japanese imperialism during his mid-career, from the May Fourth Movement to the formation of the second United Front between the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) and the CPC against Japan, which paved the way for the Chinese victory in the second Sino-Japanese War. Addressing significant moments such as the Manchurian Incident and the Xi’an Incident, it provides a thought-provoking reexamination of Zhou’s involvement in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, the first national grassroots movement in the modern history of China calling for anti-imperialism and nationalism, and also of his time in Europe, as essential background to understand the birth of the CPC and Zhou’s role in it, as well as Zhou's collaboration with Zhang Xueliang, the culprit of the Xi'an Incident. Through an in-depth analysis of primary sources, including Zhou’s own writings, the oral history of Chinese officials, and newly declassified diplomatic archives, this work presents a comprehensive and accurate account of Zhou’s career against the backdrop of Japanese imperialism. Notes on the Text 7 Acknowledgments 9 CONTENTS 10 Abbreviations 12 List of Table 13 Chapter 1: Introduction 14 Literature Review 15 Early Career of Zhou Enlai 15 Zhou Enlai and the Xi’an Incident 16 Zhang Xueliang’s Record of Repentance 16 Oral History of Zhang Xueliang 17 Scope of This Book 18 Notes 18 Chapter 2: May Fourth Movement and Early Career of Zhou Enlai 20 May Fourth Movement 20 Zhou Returned to China Before May Fourth Movement 22 Creation of Tianjin Student Federation 22 Inauguration of Tianjin Student Federation Newsletter 24 Tianjin Student Federation Joins the Demonstration in Beijing 25 Creation of Awakening Society 26 Activities of Awakening Society 27 Zhou as Burgeoning Political Activist 28 Arrest 30 Detention 31 “Record of Detention in the Metropolitan Police Department” and “Diary at the Public Prosecutor’s Office” 32 Poem for Li Yuru 33 Trial and Release 33 Notes 34 Chapter 3: Zhou Enlai Goes to Europe and Becomes a Communist 37 Decision to Go to France 37 Chinese Work–Study Program in France 38 Sailing to France 39 Arriving in Paris 40 Situation of Chinese Work–Study Students in France 42 Zhou’s Life in Paris 42 Sightseeing in Paris 44 Learning Marxism 44 February 28 Incident 45 Montargis Faction Versus Creusot Faction 46 Language Barrier 48 Becoming a Communist in Paris 48 Protest Against Secret Loan Agreement Between China and France 49 Sino-French Institute of Lyon Incident 50 Moving to Berlin 52 Zhou Recruits Zhu De 53 Execution of Huang Zhengpin 54 Birth of Chinese Youth Communist Party in Europe 55 Creation of the KMT European Branch 57 Zhou’s Personal Life in Europe 58 Correspondence with Wu Hantao 59 Zhou Meets a Japanese Friend in Paris 60 Return to China 60 Notes 63 Chapter 4: First KMT–CPC United Front and Assassination of Zhang Zuolin 67 Early Period of Zhang Xueliang 67 Guo Songling Incident 69 Young Marshal 70 Zhang Visits Japan 72 Formation of the First KMT–CPC United Front 72 Zhang Xueliang and Sun Yat-sen 73 Collapse of First KMT–CPC United Front 74 Chiang Kai-shek’s Northern Expedition 74 Assassination of Zhang Zuolin 75 Aftermath of Assassination of Zhang Zuolin 76 Zhang’s Reaction 78 Zhang’s Assumption of Power 80 Japanese Attempt to Make Zhang Emperor of Manchuria 81 Zhang’s Financial Contribution to Tokonami Takejirō 82 Victory for Northern Expedition and Northeastern Flag Replacement 83 Execution of Yang Yuting and Chang Yinhuai 85 Modernization of China’s Northeast 86 Fragile Nature of Chiang Kai-shek’s Unification of China 87 Great Battle of the Central Plains 88 Ascension to Power in the KMT Government 88 Confrontation with Kwantung Army 89 Mysterious Death of Saburi Sadao 90 Escalating Confrontation with Japan 92 Wanbaoshan Incident 92 Captain Nakamura Murder Incident 93 Notes 94 Chapter 5: Manchurian Incident and the Long March 97 W. H. Donald 99 Aftermath of the Manchurian Incident 99 Friendship Between Honjō Shigeru and Zhang Xueliang 101 When Honjō Shigeru Learned of the Conspiracy of Kwantung Army Officers 103 Bushidō of Honjō Shigeru 105 Suicide of Honjō Shigeru 105 Fate of Qing Dynasty’s Last Emperor Puyi 106 Lytton Investigation 107 Wang Jingwei and Zhang Xueliang 108 Battle of Rehe 109 Going to Europe 111 Chiang Kai-shek’s New Anticommunist Campaign 111 Establishment of “Self-governing” Regimes in Northern China 112 CPC’s Retreat to Shaanxi: The Long March 114 Zunyi Conference 115 CPC’s New Propaganda Strategy: “August 1 Declaration” 116 Wayaobao Conference 117 December 9 Student Movement 117 Northeastern Army and the Red Army 118 CPC’s Infiltration in Northeastern Army 119 CPC’s Infiltration of Northwestern Army 120 Notes 121 Chapter 6: Eve of the Xi’an Incident: Zhou Enlai Meets Zhang Xueliang 124 Northeastern People’s Association for Anti-­Japanese National Salvation 125 Zhang’s Initial Contacts with the CPC 126 CPC Launches Eastern Expedition Against Japanese 127 CPC Approaches Zhang Xueliang 127 Zhang Xueliang Meets Li Kenong 128 First Ceasefire Talks Between the CPC and the Northeastern Army 129 First Zhou–Zhang Meeting 130 Zhang’s Impressions of Zhou 131 Zhang’s Account of the Meeting 132 Zhou’s Report on the Meeting 133 CPC Gears Up Propaganda Offensive 134 Chiang Kai-shek’s Secret Negotiations with the Soviet Union and the CPC 135 Second Zhou–Zhang Meeting 137 Third Zhou–Zhang Meeting 138 CPC Changes Its Stance on Chiang Kai-shek 139 Zhang Pleads with Chiang Kai-shek 140 Zhang’s Proposal to Yang Hucheng 141 The Origin of Zhang–Yang Conspiracy 143 Seven National Salvation Intellectual Leaders Incident 144 Chiang Kai-shek Visits Xi’an 145 First Anniversary of the December 9 Student Demonstration 146 Zhang Xueliang Takes Action 147 Notes 148 Chapter 7: Xi’an Incident: Secret Meeting Between Zhou Enlai and Chiang Kai-shek 152 Zhang Xueliang Captures Chiang Kai-shek 153 Bingjian Pavilion 154 Declaration of Eight-Point Demands 155 Zhang Solicits Consultation with the CPC 156 Debate in Nanjing: Conspiracy of He Yingqin 157 Matsumoto Shigeharu Sends a Shock Wave Through the World 158 Song Meiling’s Reactions 158 December 14: KMT Envoy W. H. Donald Arrived in Xi’an 160 December 16–December 17 160 December 17: Arrival of Zhou Enlai in Xi’an 161 Zhang Anxiously Waits for Zhou 162 Zhou Enlai Meets Yang Hucheng 163 Zhang Xueliang and Comintern/Soviet Union 164 Arrival of Song Ziwen 166 Arrival of Song Meiling 167 Contending Views in Northeastern Army and Northwestern Army 168 Formal Negotiations with the KMT 169 Zhou Enlai–Song Meiling Meeting 169 Yang Hucheng’s Reservations 171 Zhou Enlai Mediates Zhang and Yang 172 Secret Meeting Between Chiang Kai-shek and Zhou Enlai 173 Truth About Chiang–Zhou Secret Meeting 174 Zhang Guotao’s Account 175 Edgar Snow’s Account 175 Matsuno Tanio’s Account 176 Zhang Abruptly Releases Chiang Kai-shek 177 Zhou’s Reaction 177 Zhang and Song Meiling 178 Chiang Kai-shek Returns to Nanjing 180 Notes 180 Chapter 8: Zhou Enlai Negotiates with Chiang Kai-­shek for Peaceful Settlement 184 Chiang Kai-shek Strikes Back 186 Internal Division in the Northeastern Army 187 Three Musketeers of Northeastern Army Radicals 187 Disintegration of Solidarity in Trinity Forces 189 Miao Jianqiu and Zhou Enlai 190 Eve of February 2 Incident 191 February 2 Incident 193 Punishment of the Three Musketeers of the Northeastern Army 195 Later Careers of the Three Musketeers 196 Mysterious Life of Miao Jianqiu 197 Edgar Snow Interviews Miao Jianqiu 198 Secret Career of Miao Jianqiu 199 Disintegration of the Northeastern Army 200 Occupation of Xi’an by the KMT Central Army 200 Zhang Sends Military Instructions from Nanjing 201 Notes 202 Chapter 9: Formation of the Second KMT–CPC United Front Against Japan 206 Negotiations with the ROC–KMT Government 207 First Round of Negotiations with the KMT 208 Meeting with an “Old Friend” 208 KMT Fifth Central Committee Third Plenary Session 209 March 8 Agreement 210 Setback in March 8 Agreement 211 Second Round of Negotiations with the KMT 212 Zhou’s Triumphant Return to Yan’an 213 Zhou Drafts the United Front 214 Interim Negotiations in Xi’an 215 Third Round of Negotiations with the KMT 216 Zhou Returns to Yan’an 217 Outbreak of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident 218 Fourth Round of Negotiations with the KMT 219 Chiang Stalls Negotiation 220 Fifth Round of Negotiations with the KMT 221 CCCPC Declares the KMT–CPC United Front 222 Notes 224 Chapter 10: Conclusion 227 Consequences for Culprits of the Xi’an Incident 228 Lifelong House Arrest for Zhang Xueliang 228 Rehabilitation of Zhang Xueliang 230 Assessment of the Xi’an Incident 232 Lessons for the CPC 235 Later Life of Zhang Xueliang 237 Continuing Contacts Between Zhou and Zhang 238 Zhou Protects Zhang’s Brothers 239 Zhang Moves to Hawaii 240 Zhou Enlai and the Xi’an Incident 241 Notes 242 Appendix 245 Selected Bibliography 247 I Sources in Chinese 247 II Sources in English 250 Journal Article 251 III Sources in Japanese 252 Journal Article 252 Index 253 Front Matter....Pages i-xvii Introduction....Pages 1-6 May Fourth Movement and Early Career of Zhou Enlai....Pages 7-23 Zhou Enlai Goes to Europe and Becomes a Communist....Pages 25-54 First KMT–CPC United Front and Assassination of Zhang Zuolin....Pages 55-84 Manchurian Incident and the Long March....Pages 85-111 Eve of the Xi’an Incident: Zhou Enlai Meets Zhang Xueliang....Pages 113-140 Xi’an Incident: Secret Meeting Between Zhou Enlai and Chiang Kai-shek....Pages 141-172 Zhou Enlai Negotiates with Chiang Kai-shek for Peaceful Settlement....Pages 173-194 Formation of the Second KMT–CPC United Front Against Japan....Pages 195-215 Conclusion....Pages 217-234 Back Matter....Pages 235-256