The innovation journey of Wi-Fi : the road to global success

Wi-fi Has Become The Preferred Means For Connecting To The Internet - At Home, In The Office, In Hotels And At Airports. Increasingly, Wi-fi Also Provides Internet Access For Remote Communities Where It Is Deployed By Volunteers In Community-based Networks, By Operators In 'hotspots' And By Municipalities In 'hotzones'. This Book Traces The Global Success Of Wi-fi To The Landmark Change In Radio Spectrum Policy By The Us Fcc In 1985, The Initiative By Ncr Corporation To Start Development Of Wireless-lans And The Drive For An Open Standard Ieee 802.11, Released In 1997. It Also Singles Out And Explains The Significance Of The Initiative By Steve Jobs At Apple To Include Wireless-lan In The Ibook, Which Moved The Product From The Early Adopters To The Mass Market. The Book Explains These Developments Through First-hand Accounts By Industry Practitioners And Concludes With Reflections And Implications For Government Policy And Firm Strategy-- Machine Generated Contents Note: List Of Figures; List Of Tables; List Of Contributors; Introduction Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes And John Groenewegen; Reading Guide; 1. The Case And The Theoretical Framework Wolter Lemstra, John Groenewegen And Vic Hayes; Part I. The Wi-fi Journey: 2. Ncr - Taking The Cue Provided By The Fcc Wolter Lemstra, Donald Johnson, Bruce Tuch And Michael Marcus; 3. Creating A Wireless Lan Standard - Ieee 802.11 Kai Jakobs, Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes, Bruce Tuch And Cees Links; 4. Crossing The Chasm - The Apple Airport Wolter Lemstra, Alex Hills, Vic Hayes, Dorothy Stanley, Albert Heijl And Bruce Tuch; 5. Hotspots - The Starbucks Initiative Wolter Lemstra, Els Van Der Kar, Gerd-jan De Leeuw And Leo Brand; 6. Wi-fi Community Networks - Wireless Leiden Wolter Lemstra, Leo Van Audenhove, Huub Schuurmans, Martin Vijn And Gerard Mourits; Part Ii. The Wi-fi Journey In Perspective: 7. Wi-fi In Developing Countries - Catalyst For Network Extension And Telecom Reform William Melody; 8. The Dutch Connection To Us-based Ncr, At&t, Lucent Technologies, And Agere Systems Wolter Lemstra, Marianne Van Der Steen, Ronald Brockmann, Jaap Haartsen, Cees Links, Richard Van Nee, Bruce Tuch And Allert Van Zelst; 9. Wi-fi As Community Based Innovation Ellen Van Oost, Stefan Verhaegh, Nelly Oudshoorn And Wolter Lemstra; 10. The Governance Of Radio Spectrum - License-exempt Devices Peter Anker, Wolter Lemstra And Vic Hayes; 11. Exploring The Future Of Wi-fi Pierre Rossel And Matthias Finger; 12. Reflections And Implications For Policy And Strategy Formation Wolter Lemstra And John Groenewegen; Part Iii. Annexes: Annex 1. Glossary Wolter Lemstra; Annex 2. Timeline Of Major Events Related To Wi-fi Wolter Lemstra And Vic Hayes; Annex 3. Overview Of Ieee 802.11 Wireless-lan Standards Vic Hayes; Annex 4. The Wi-fi Ecosystem Gerd-jan De Leeuw; Index. Edited By Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes And John Groenewegen. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Figures......Page 9 Tables......Page 11 Authors......Page 12 Input providers......Page 13 Preface......Page 17 Introduction......Page 19 1.1 Wi-Fi: an unexpected success story......Page 21 1.2 The theoretical framework......Page 24 1.3 Innovation and the landscape lens......Page 26 1.5 Structure of the book......Page 32 References......Page 35 Part 1 The Wi-Fi Journey......Page 37 2.1 The innovation trigger: the FCC Report and Order......Page 39 2.1.1 The process of telecommunication reform......Page 41 2.1.2 The origin of spread spectrum......Page 42 2.1.3 The governance of radio frequency spectrum......Page 43 2.1.4 Early civil applications of spread spectrum......Page 45 2.1.5 The link to mobile telephony......Page 46 2.2 The NCR response to the FCC Report and Order......Page 47 2.2.1 NCR: the company......Page 48 2.2.2 The link to the Netherlands......Page 49 2.3 The development of local area networks13......Page 50 2.3.1 The creation of a LAN standard......Page 53 2.4.1 The WLAN feasibility study......Page 55 2.5 Summary of theWi-Fi journey: 1980–1987......Page 58 2.6.1 Innovation and the innovation landscape......Page 59 2.6.2 Institutional environment and industry evolution......Page 63 Notes......Page 65 References......Page 68 3.1 The start of wireless LAN product development......Page 71 3.1.1 The role of standards within NCR......Page 72 3.1.2 In search of an existing MAC protocol......Page 74 3.1.3 Differences in making standards......Page 75 3.1.4 Engaging with the IEEE......Page 76 3.1.6 Robert’s Rules of Order......Page 78 3.2 NCR involvement in IEEE 802.4: token bus......Page 79 3.2.1 The need for a new MAC protocol......Page 80 3.3 Standards work within the IEEE......Page 81 3.3.1 Organisation of the standards work......Page 83 3.4.1 NCR taking the lead......Page 84 3.4.2 The need to explain opposition in voting......Page 85 3.5 Competing proposals within IEEE 802.11......Page 86 3.5.2 The second battleground: frequency hopping versus direct sequence......Page 87 3.5.3 The third battleground: HomeRF......Page 88 3.5.4 The fourth battleground: HIPERLAN......Page 90 3.5.5 The fifth battleground: Lucent Technologies versus Harris versus Micrilor......Page 93 3.6.1 Approval of the first extensions: IEEE 802.11a and 11b......Page 94 3.7.1 Reflections on participation......Page 95 3.7.2 Reflecting on the standard-making process......Page 99 3.9 Interpretation of theWi-Fi case in the context of theory......Page 100 3.9.2 The strategic considerations in standard making......Page 101 3.10 The evolving world of ICT standard setting......Page 103 3.10.1 The notion of ‘open standards’......Page 107 3.10.2 Relations between stakeholders......Page 109 3.10.3 Coordination and competition in standardisation......Page 111 3.10.4 The role of the individual......Page 113 3.10.5 The individual in the case of IEEE 802.11......Page 115 3.11 Innovation and the innovation landscape......Page 119 Notes......Page 120 References......Page 124 4.1 Crossing the chasm......Page 128 4.2.1 The product launch......Page 130 4.2.2 The sales channel......Page 132 4.2.4 Getting the product market combination right......Page 134 4.2.5 The market outside the United States......Page 136 4.2.6 Global versus local products......Page 137 4.2.7 Carnegie Mellon University project ‘Wireless Andrew’......Page 139 Design challenges......Page 140 Design procedure......Page 142 4.2.8 The competition on speed in LANs......Page 143 4.3 The chasm......Page 144 4.3.1 Increasing the data rate: the turbo version......Page 145 4.4.1 The Apple AirPort......Page 146 4.4.2 Microsoft XP......Page 149 4.5 Inside the tornado......Page 150 4.5.2 Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance......Page 152 4.5.3 Resolving security issues......Page 153 4.6 The penultimate success: Centrino......Page 155 4.7 Summary of theWi-Fi journey: 1987–2003......Page 156 4.8.1 Innovation and the innovation landscape......Page 157 4.8.3 The industry evolution......Page 163 Notes......Page 166 References......Page 169 5.1 Introduction: Starbucks......Page 172 5.2.1 The Swisscom case......Page 174 5.2.2 Hotspot statistics......Page 176 5.3 Hotspot business models......Page 177 5.3.2 FON......Page 179 5.3.3 Premium hotspots......Page 180 5.3.5 Value network of actors: aggregators and clearing houses......Page 181 5.3.7 Convergence of Wi-Fi and cellular services......Page 183 5.5.1 Innovation and the innovation landscape......Page 185 5.5.3 Industry evolution......Page 187 Notes......Page 188 References......Page 189 6.1 Wireless neighbourhood area networks......Page 193 6.2 The case of Wireless Leiden......Page 194 6.2.2 The organisation......Page 195 6.2.3 Operating within the law......Page 197 6.2.4 The competition......Page 199 6.2.6 Future direction......Page 200 6.3 Municipal networks......Page 202 6.5 Interpretation of theWi-Fi case in the context of theory......Page 206 6.5.1 Institutional environment and industry evolution......Page 207 Notes......Page 209 References......Page 211 Part 2 The Wi-Fi Journey in Perspective......Page 213 7.1 Introduction......Page 215 7.2 The challenge of universal access......Page 217 7.2.1 The traditional model for implementing universal access subsidies......Page 218 7.2.2 Direct subsidy funds......Page 220 7.2.3 Universal access and local participation......Page 221 7.3.1 Internet economy and information society development......Page 222 7.3.2 Towards universal access to information infrastructure......Page 223 7.4.1 Cellular mobile for voice services......Page 225 7.4.2 Towards internet and broadband access......Page 227 7.5.1 Assessing technology options......Page 228 7.5.2 Wi-Fi characteristics......Page 229 7.6.1 DjurslandS.net, Denmark......Page 230 7.6.2 Nepal Wireless Networking Project......Page 233 7.6.3 Dharamsala Community Wireless Network, India......Page 234 7.6.4 Merida, ́ Venezuela......Page 236 7.6.5 Knysna network, South Africa......Page 237 7.6.6 Mpumalanga network, South Africa......Page 238 7.7 Sharing the Wi-Fi field experience......Page 239 7.8 The role of policy and regulation......Page 240 7.8.1 Indonesia: Wi-Fi practice reforming telecom policy17......Page 242 7.9 Conclusion......Page 243 Notes......Page 244 References......Page 245 8.1 Introduction......Page 248 8.2.1 The model of political economy and the role of the state......Page 249 8.2.2 From industrial policy to innovation policy......Page 251 8.2.3 The WBSO Act......Page 253 8.3.1 From closed to open innovation in the sector......Page 254 8.3.2 Early applications of RF technology in the Netherlands......Page 256 8.4 The actor level: knowledge interactions......Page 257 8.4.1 The NCR Systems Engineering Centre and its knowledge network......Page 259 8.4.2 NCR/AT&T/Lucent Technologies: being part of a......Page 260 8.4.3 Philips and Co.......Page 262 8.4.4 Knowledge flow: Philips to NCR......Page 264 8.5.1 No Wires Needed: jumping on the bandwagon......Page 265 8.5.2 MIMO: multiple data flows......Page 267 8.6.1 Bluetooth: the need for ad hoc connectivity......Page 269 The birth of a new technology......Page 270 From idea to market......Page 272 8.6.2 ZigBee: ultra short range......Page 273 8.7 Other salient RF activities......Page 274 8.8 Conclusions......Page 275 Notes......Page 276 References......Page 278 9.1 Introduction......Page 281 9.2 Theoretical framework and methodology......Page 283 9.2.1 The innovative agency of users......Page 284 9.2.2 The innovative agency of communities......Page 285 9.3 The rise of Wireless Leiden as a user innovation......Page 287 9.3.1 The shaping of Wi-Fi as indoor local area technology......Page 288 9.3.2 Reshaping Wi-Fi as outdoor longer-distance technology......Page 289 9.3.3 Reshaping Wi-Fi as a wide area network......Page 290 9.3.4 User-initiated innovation as a collective activity of re-engineering......Page 293 9.4 The growth of Wireless Leiden as a community-driven innovation......Page 294 9.4.2 The organisational user as sponsor......Page 295 9.4.3 The volunteer-user......Page 296 9.4.5 The maintenance user......Page 297 9.5 The Wireless Leiden community as a sociotechnical network......Page 298 9.6 Understanding Wireless Leiden as ‘community innovation’......Page 299 Notes......Page 301 References......Page 302 10.1 Introduction......Page 306 10.3 Historical development in the use of radio spectrum......Page 307 10.4 The radio spectrum governance paradigm......Page 311 10.5.1 Part 15 devices......Page 313 10.5.2 Part 18 devices......Page 314 10.5.3 The 1985 landmark decision by the FCC: WLANs......Page 315 10.5.4 Obtaining additional spectrum: PCS......Page 316 10.5.5 Transition to 2.45 GHz in the United States......Page 317 10.6 Radio spectrum governance in Europe......Page 319 10.6.1 Involvement of the European Commission......Page 320 10.6.2 Europe allocating the 2.45 GHz band: WLANs......Page 322 10.7.1 Unlicensed devices in China: WLANs......Page 323 10.7.3 Unlicensed devices in South Korea: WLANs......Page 324 10.8.1 Europe allocating the 5 GHz band: HIPERLANs......Page 325 10.8.2 The United States allocating the 5 GHz band......Page 326 10.9 The public–private coordination of RF spectrum use......Page 327 10.10 The role of the ITU with respect to short-range devices......Page 329 10.11 Frequency agile devices and dynamic spectrum access......Page 331 10.11.1 Towards dynamic spectrum access......Page 332 10.11.2 Implications of dynamic spectrum access for spectrum governance......Page 333 10.11.3 Adapting the international regulatory framework......Page 334 10.11.5 Dynamic spectrum access in an open access regime......Page 336 10.11.6 Dynamic spectrum access in a market-based approach......Page 337 10.11.8 Conclusions......Page 338 Notes......Page 339 References......Page 342 11.1 Introduction......Page 349 11.2.1 Wi-Fi: an undeniable success story – likely to continue......Page 350 11.3 Converging with forecasts: technological innovation models as clues?......Page 354 11.3.2 Technologies as guidelines: the deterministic approaches......Page 355 11.3.3 Technologies as social constructions......Page 357 11.3.4 The case for a middle-of-the-road epistemological space in the interplay between technologies and society......Page 358 11.3.5 Market views on modelling implications......Page 360 11.3.6 Conclusion: preparing for more difficult tasks......Page 361 11.4.1 Initial methodological choices......Page 362 11.4.2 An initial set of questions and then two rounds of interactions......Page 364 11.4.3 An intermediate synthesis......Page 365 11.4.4 Scenarios......Page 367 11.4.5 A need for narrowing down complexity and evaluating options......Page 369 11.5.1 How do we evaluate scenarios?......Page 370 11.5.2 Beyond 2015: the longer term......Page 371 11.5.3 Around 2015......Page 373 11.5.4 The short term......Page 374 11.6 Conclusion: quite an open situation......Page 377 Notes......Page 378 References......Page 382 12.2 Reflecting on innovation......Page 385 12.4 Reflecting on radio spectrum management......Page 389 12.5 Implications for government policy......Page 390 12.6 Implications for firm strategy......Page 392 12.7 Concluding remarks......Page 394 References......Page 395 Part 3 Annexes......Page 397 Annex 1: Glossary......Page 399 Annex 2: Timeline of major events related to Wi-Fi......Page 411 References......Page 417 Annex 3: Overview of IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standards......Page 418 Wi-Fi hotspots......Page 422 References......Page 425 Index......Page 427 Introduction : The case and the theoretical framework / Wolter Lemstra, John Groenewegen, Vic Hayes Part 1 : The wi-fi journey. NCR: taking the cue provided by the FCC / Wolter Lemstra ... [et al.] Creating a wireless LAN standard: IEEE 802.11 / Kai Jakobs ... [et al.] Crossing the chasm: the Apple AirPort / Wolter Lemstra ... [et al.] Hotspots: the Starbucks initiative / Wolter Lemstra ... [et al.] Wi-Fi based community networks: Wireless Leiden / Wolter Lemstra ... [et al.] Part 2 : The wi-fi journey in perspective. Wi-fi in developing countries: catalyst for network extension and telecom reform / William Melody The Dutch connection to US-based NCR, AT&T, Lucent Technologies and Agere Systems / Wolter Lemstra ... [et al.] Wi-fi as community based innovation / Ellen van Oost ... [et al.] The governance of radio spectrum; license-exempt devices / Peter Anker, Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes Exploring the future of wi-fi / Pierre Rossel, Matthias Finger Reflections and implications for policy and strategy formation / Wolter Lemstra, John Groenewegen Part 3 : Annexes. Glossary / Wolter Lemstra Timeline of major events related to wi-fi / Wolter Lemstra, Vic Hayes Overview of IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standards / Vic Hayes The wi-fi ecosystem / Gerd-Jan De Leeuw