The Impact of Climate Change on Fungal Diseases (Fungal Biology)

The shift of weather patterns has affected the incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases, including mycoses. Mycoses have remained neglected due to a lack of training and recognition within the medical community. Nonetheless, these diseases remain common worldwide while frequently being underdiagnosed. Climate change affects the distribution of fungal communities, provoking outbreaks in locations where these mycoses were absent or in low frequencies. Moreover, the reports of clinical cases related to new fungal pathogens have increased due to the description of new fungal species or due to the ability of some species to shift to new hosts. Thus, this book, The Impact of Climate Change on Fungal Diseases , is a contribution to the knowledge of a global environmental phenomenon and its relation to these diseases, and it serves as a guide for health professionals to dive deep into the repercussions of climate changeand how they can implement measures for the prevention and control of fungal infections. Foreword Preface Contents Contributors Chapter 1: Climate Change Overview 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Climate Variability 1.3 The Greenhouse Effect and the Climatic Feedback Mechanisms 1.4 Current Impacts and the IPCC 1.5 Future Impacts 1.5.1 The Representative Concentration Pathways and Socioeconomic Drivers of Climate Change 1.5.2 Projections of Changes in Temperature and Precipitation 1.5.3 Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystems and Fungi 1.6 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Fungi: Essential Elements in the Ecosystems 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fungi as Decomposers and Their Essential Role in Agriculture 2.3 Role of Fungi in the Food and Pharmaceutical Industry 2.4 Fungi as Biocontrol Agents 2.4.1 Entomopathogenic Fungi 2.4.2 Nematophagous Fungi 2.5 Fungi as a Source of Bioactive Compounds 2.6 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Thermotolerance and Adaptation to Climate Change 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Mechanisms of Fungal Thermotolerance 3.3 Spores, Resistance, and Survival 3.4 Thermotolerance and Its Relationship with Environmental Changes 3.5 Habitats of Thermotolerant Fungi 3.6 Thermotolerance within the Environmental Fungi 3.7 Perspectives of Fungal Thermotolerance Studies 3.8 Climate Change and Aeromycological Dynamics 3.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 4: Impact of Climate Change on Dermatophytosis 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Climate Change Vs. Pathogens 4.3 Influence of Climate Change on Dermatophytoses 4.4 The Geographical Spread of Dermatophytoses as a Consequence of Climate Change 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Climate Change and Its Impact on Sporotrichosis 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Sporothrix Features 5.3 Epidemiology 5.3.1 Outbreaks 5.3.2 Zoonotic Outbreaks 5.4 Clinical Presentation 5.5 Natural Disasters 5.6 Conclusion References Chapter 6: Eumycetoma and Global Warming 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Geographic Distribution 6.3 Risk Factors 6.3.1 Socioeconomic Conditions 6.3.2 Genetic Factors 6.3.3 Immune Factors 6.3.4 Hormonal Influence 6.4 Etiological Agents 6.5 Ecological Conditions 6.6 Relationship Between Mycetoma and Environmental Etiological Agents 6.7 Repercussions of Climate Change on the Frequency and Geographic Distribution of Eumycetoma 6.8 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Climate Change Impact on Chromoblastomycosis 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Etiopathogenesis 7.3 Epidemiology 7.4 Climate Change Effects of Chromoblastomycosis 7.5 Clinical Manifestations 7.6 Diagnosis 7.7 Treatment and Prophylaxis 7.8 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Effect of Climate Change on the Incidence and Geographical Distribution of Coccidioidomycosis 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Habitat of Coccidioides spp. 8.3 Climatic Factors and Their Role in the Incidence of Coccidioidomycosis 8.4 Climate Change and Its Effects on the Expansion of Coccidioides spp. Geographical Distribution 8.5 Conclusion References Chapter 9: Impact of Climate Change on Opportunistic Molds Infections 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Fungal Diversity 9.2 Human Fungal Infections 9.2.1 The Global Burden of Fungal Diseases 9.3 Global Warming and Its Health Influence 9.3.1 Global Warming and the Impact on Fungi 9.4 Fungal Infections and Natural Disasters 9.4.1 Natural Disasters Inhalation Semi-drowning Subcutaneous Tissue Trauma Damage to Infrastructure 9.5 Conclusion References Chapter 10: Opportunistic Yeast Infections and Climate Change: The Emergence of Candida auris 10.1 Introduction 10.2 C. auris: An Emerging Yeast with Distinctive Features 10.3 Infections Caused by C. auris 10.4 Epidemiological Expansion of C. auris 10.5 The Origin of C. auris 10.6 The Emergency of C. auris and Climate Change 10.7 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Climate Change and Global Distribution of Cryptococcosis 11.1 Introduction: General Characteristics of Cryptococcosis and Etiology 11.2 Climate Change, Global Warming, and Geographic Distribution 11.3 The Impact of Environmental Factors on the Growth and Development of Cryptococcus in Nature 11.3.1 Biotic Factors Interactions with Plants Interactions with Birds Interaction with Other Microorganisms in Natural Habitats 11.3.2 Abiotic Factors Temperature Wind 11.4 Exotic Species and Cryptococcosis Outbreaks 11.5 Virulence and Survival Factors of Cryptococcus Species Facing Climate Change 11.5.1 The Capsule 11.5.2 Melanin Production 11.5.3 pH Tolerance 11.5.4 Capacity to Survive Exposure to Natural Predators 11.6 Factors that Increase Host Susceptibility to Cryptococcosis 11.6.1 Malnutrition 11.6.2 Dehydration 11.6.3 Stress 11.6.4 Ultraviolet Light 11.7 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Climate Change, Hurricanes, and Fungal Diseases 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Hurricanes 12.3 Climate Change and Hurricanes 12.4 Hurricanes and Fungal Diseases 12.5 Prevention of Post-Hurricane Fungal Diseases 12.6 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Climate Change and Allergies 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Allergenic Fungi 13.3 Responses to Fungal Allergens 13.4 Fungal Allergy and its Relationship with Environmental Changes 13.5 Climate Change and Allergenic Fungi 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Mycotoxins and Climate Change 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Discovery of Mycotoxins 14.3 Principal Toxigenic Fungi and their Metabolites 14.4 Food Mycotoxins and its Toxicological Effect 14.5 Influence of Climate Change on Mycotoxin Production 14.5.1 Temperature 14.5.2 Water Availability 14.5.3 Soil Composition 14.6 Conclusion References Chapter 15: New Tools in Laboratory Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Infections 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Laboratory Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Candida Infection 15.3 Laboratory Diagnosis of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis 15.4 Laboratory Diagnosis of Cryptococcus Infection 15.5 Laboratory Diagnosis of Pneumocystis Jirovecii Infection 15.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Disseminated Histoplasmosis 15.7 Laboratory Diagnosis of Blastomycosis 15.8 Laboratory Diagnosis of Coccidioidomycosis 15.9 Pan-Fungal PCR 15.10 Next-Generation Sequencing 15.10.1 Characterization of New Pathogens 15.10.2 Outbreak Characterization 15.10.3 Resistance Mechanism Analysis 15.10.4 Mycobiome 15.10.5 Diagnosis of Fungal Infections 15.11 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Natural Antifungal Products: Another Option for Antifungal Resistance 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Nonvolatile Natural Extracts 16.2.1 Phenolic Compounds 16.2.2 Alkaloids 16.3 Natural Volatile Extracts 16.3.1 Essential Oils 16.3.2 Terpenoids 16.4 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Antifungal Vaccines: Current Status and Future Directions 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Basics about Vaccination and Types of Immunization 17.2.1 Active Immunization 17.2.2 Passive Immunization 17.3 The Immune Response against Fungi 17.3.1 Innate Immunity 17.3.2 Acquired Immunity 17.4 Fungal Vaccines 17.4.1 Live-Attenuated or Inactivated Fungal Vaccines 17.4.2 Purified Antigen (Protein Subunit and Carbohydrate, Recombinant) Vaccines 17.4.3 DNA Vaccines 17.4.4 Monoclonal Antibody Vaccines 17.5 The Importance and Difficulties of Developing Antifungal Vaccines 17.6 Conclusion References