The Horrors of Adana : Revolution and Violence in the Early Twentieth Century

"In April 1909, one of the worst massacres of the twentieth century took place in the Ottoman province of Adana. As the hub of the empire's cotton production, it was home to a diverse population of Muslims and Christians. Over the span of two weeks, more than 20,000 Christians, the majority of whom were Armenian, and 2,000 Muslims died. The violence began in the capital city, also called Adana, spread across the province, and poured into the neighboring province of Aleppo. The central Ottoman government failed to prosecute the main culprits, a miscarriage of justice that would have repercussions for years to come. Despite the extent of violence and destruction, the Adana Massacres are often left out of historical narratives. When they are included, it is frequently in service of a particular perspective. With this book, Bedross Der Matossian offers a necessary corrective and more complete telling of the events and their repercussions. Bedross Der Matossian provides an in-depth and nuanced history of the Adana Massacres and their multiple underlying causes. The most important factors leading to these events were the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the counter-revolution of 1909, and the emergence of public spheres. The public spheres that developed in the post-revolutionary period throughout the Ottoman Empire offered a medium by which people aired their support for or discontent with the new regime and could debate the future of the empire, but also fed ethnic tension and became a vehicle for dissatisfied groups to enact violence. Der Matossian further analyzes the dynamics of the 1909 massacres by concentrating on state and local actors, interest groups, the psychological atmosphere, economic factors, modernization, and urbanization"-- Provided by publisher In April 1909, two waves of massacres shook the province of Adana, located in the southern Anatolia region of modern-day Turkey, killing more than 20,000 Armenians and 2,000 Muslims. The central Ottoman government failed to prosecute the main culprits, a miscarriage of justice that would have repercussions for years to come. Despite the significance of these events and the extent of violence and destruction, the Adana Massacres are often left out of historical narratives. The Horrors of Adana offers one of the first close examinations of these events, analyzing sociopolitical and economic transformations that culminated in a cataclysm of violence. Bedross Der Matossian provides voice and agency to all involved in the massacres―perpetrators, victims, and bystanders. Drawing on primary sources in a dozen languages, he develops an interdisciplinary approach to understand the rumors and emotions, public spheres and humanitarian interventions that together informed this complex event. Ultimately, through consideration of the Adana Massacres in micro-historical detail, this book offers an important macrocosmic understanding of ethnic violence, illuminating how and why ordinary people can become perpetrators. Cover 1 Title Page 4 Copyright 5 Dedication 6 Contents 8 Acknowledgments 10 Note on Transliteration and Translation 14 Introduction 18 1. A Frayed Tapestry: The Transformation of Adana in the Nineteenth Century 44 2. Agitation and Paranoia: Adana during the Hamidian Period 68 3. Bad Blood, Thwarted Hopes: Contesting the Public Sphere in Postrevolutionary Adana 84 4. An Imagined Uprising: The First Wave of Massacres 114 5. False Protection: The Second Wave of Massacres 151 6. After the Fact: Humanitarian Aid and Reactions to the Massacres 170 7. Justice on Trial: The Courts-Martial and Investigation Commissions 200 8. The Form of Justice: The Courts-Martial and the Imperial Ottoman Penal Code 224 Conclusion 241 Bibliography of Primary Sources 258 Notes 266 Index 330 Back Cover 362 A frayed tapestry : the transformation of Adana in the nineteenth century -- Agitation and paranoia : Adana during the Hamidian period -- Bad blood, thwarted hopes : contesting the public sphere in post-revolutionary Adana -- An imagined uprising : the first wave of massacres -- False protection : the second wave of massacres -- After the fact : humanitarian aid and reactions to the massacres -- Justice on trial : the courts martial and investigation commissions -- The form of justice : the Courts Martial and the Imperial Ottoman Penal Code