The History and Political Transition of Zimbabwe: From Mugabe to Mnangagwa (African Histories and Modernities)

This book is the first to tackle the difficult and complex politics of transition in Zimbabwe, with deep historical analysis. Its focus is on a very problematic political culture that is proving very hard to transcend. At the center of this culture is an unstable but resilient ‘nationalist-military’ alliance crafted during the anti-colonial liberation struggle in the 1970s. Inevitably, violence, misogyny and masculinity are constitutive of the political culture. Economically speaking, the culture is that of a bureaucratic, parasitic, primitive accumulation and corruption, which include invasion and emptying of state coffers by a self-styled ‘Chimurenga aristocracy.’ However, this Chimurenga aristocracy is not cohesive, as the politics that led to Robert Mugabe’s ousting from power was preceded by dirty and protracted internal factionalism. At the center of the factional politics was the ‘first family’:Robert Mugabe and his wife, Grace Mugabe. This book offers a multidisciplinary examination of the complex contemporary politics in Zimbabwe, taking seriously such issues as gender, misogyny, militarism, violence, media, identity, modes of accumulation, the ethnicization of politics, attempts to open lines of credit and FDI, national healing, and the national question as key variables not only of a complete political culture but also of difficult transitional politics. Foreword Acknowledgements Contents Notes on Contributors List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Introduction: Transition in Zimbabwe: From Robert Gabriel Mugabe to Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa: A Repetition Without Change The November 2017 Military Coup and the Rise of Mnangagwa to Power The Mnangagwa Regime: Second Republic or Repetition Without Change? Organisation of the Book Going Forward References Part I: Colonialism, Nationalism and Political Culture Chapter 2: The Political Culture of Zimbabwe: Continuities and Discontinuities Introduction Colonisation and Domestication of the Traditional Authorities After Military Defeat: Ndebele and Shona Groups’ Experiences Exclusion of Blacks After Sidelining and Undermining the Shona, Ndebele and Other Groups Political Culture and Practices Under Colonialism: Economic and Political Marginalization of Blacks and Domestication of the Traditional Authorities Resistance to Colonization by the Black Populations Zimbabwe’s Political Culture After Independence Attempts at Promoting Racial and Ethnic Harmony Resistance by Urban Populations Resistance to ZANU–PF Hegemony and Gukurahundi Atrocities The Post-colonial State’s War on Women: Operation Clean-Up (1983) The Revolt of War Veterans against ZANU–PF Over Their Unpaid Pensions and Compensation (1996–7) Operation Murambatsvina (Operation Remove the Rubbish) Racial Tension and Class Confrontations Over Land: Hondo Yeminda (the War Over Land) Operation Makavhotera Papi? (2008) Militarization, Securitization of Resources and the Coup Against Mugabe in 2017: The Development of a Militarized Political Culture in Zimbabwe Operation Hakudzokwi (Operation No Return) Conclusion The Political Culture of Zimbabwe References Chapter 3: The Zimbabwean National Question: Key Components and Unfinished Business Introduction Background Mapping the Contours of the Zimbabwe National Problem Framing the National Issues in Zimbabwe The Nationalist Framework of a Common Vision The Postcolony of Zimbabwe Defining Post-2000 Zimbabwean National Issues Post-July 2013 Contours of the National Question The Hashtag Civic Movements and the Countdown to the Fall of Mugabe Towards an Unclear Political Future Conclusions References Chapter 4: Opposition Politics and the Culture of Polarisation in Zimbabwe, 1980–2018 Introduction Development of a Political Culture: Tending Towards Polarisation The Creation of a Party-State: Landscape for Opposition Politics Political Players and Relations Post-Independence (1980–1990) Civil Society and Opposition Politics The Workers’ Movement The Student Movement Why Civil Society and Party State Relations Soured Weak Opposition Party Politics in Zimbabwe Broadening a Counter-Hegemony and Consolidation of Oppositional Politics Conclusion References Chapter 5: Understanding Zimbabwe’s Political Culture: Media and Civil Society Introduction Understanding Political Culture Civil Society and Democratisation in Zimbabwe The Media as Part of Zimbabwean Civil Society Conclusion References Part II: Identity, Militarisation and Transitional Politics Chapter 6: The Identity Politics Factor in Zimbabwe’s Transition Politics Introduction Identity Politics: What Are Its Political Strands? Identity Politics Shapes Transition Politics: Easton’s Systems Theory Identity Politics: A Dominant Political Culture in Zimbabwe History of Transition in Zimbabwe: From Racial Nationalism to Politics of Liberation Entitlement Conclusion References Chapter 7: The Ethnicization of Political Mobilization in Zimbabwe: The Case of Pro-Mthwakazi Movements Introduction The Historical Context of Ethnic Rivalry and Conflict in Zimbabwe The Ethnicization of Liberation Movement Narratives Characterization of Ethnic Politics from Pro-Mthwakazi Perceptions Perceived Unequal Development Perceived Discrimination in Employment and Promotion Teacher Deployment and Failure Rate Linguistic, Cultural and Religious Aspects The Humiliating Unity Accord of 1987 Perceived Ethnicization of Party Politics Political Mobilization on Ethnic and Regional Appeal Possible Options for Addressing Ethnic-Based Political Mobilization Implementation of Constitutional Provisions for Devolution An Effective and Resourced NPRC to Address Gukurahundi Affirmative Action to Compensate for Setbacks in Matabeleland Economic Development, Rebuilding Infrastructure and Job Creation Plurality in Remembrance of Liberation Legacy Constitutional Clause on Exit Referendum Conclusion References Chapter 8: The Militarisation of State Institutions in Zimbabwe, 2002–2017 Introduction Zimbabwe’s Competitive Authoritarian System Authoritarian Erosion and Internal Contradictions in ZANU–PF Elite Fragmentation in Women’s and Youth Leagues Comparative Analyses of Elite Incohesion in ZANU–PF Lack of Elite Consensus in the Security Apparatus? Grassroots Incohesion: Grace Mugabe at the Centre State-Controlled Media’s Capture by Military Interests Private Media and Coverage of the Military Coup Military Seizure of the ZANU–PF Party Internal Electoral Processes The Militarized Judiciary and Its Role in the Coup Conclusion References Part III: Social Media, Democracy and Political Discourse Chapter 9: The Media and Politics in the Context of the “Third Chimurenga” in Zimbabwe References Chapter 10: Social Media and the Concept of Dissidence in Zimbabwean Politics Introduction Social Media and Dissidence Method and Theory Tracing the Dissident Trope 2000–2010 Social Media Dissidence in Perspective Data Presentation and Discussion Baba Jukwa Typology #ThisFlag Typology #Tajamuka/Sesjikile Typology Conclusion References Chapter 11: The Tabloidization of Political News in Zimbabwe: End of Quality Press? Introduction Background to the Media Standards Debate The Expulsion of Joice Mujuru from ZANU–PF and Government Tabloids and Tabloidisation Tabloid Journalism Tabloidisation, Media and Democracy Tabloidisation Indicators Methodology and Theoretical Framework Key Findings Media Framing of Joice Mujuru The Herald Frames Daily News Frames NewsDay Frames Tabloidisation of Coverage The Herald Daily News NewsDay Forces Behind the Tabloidisation of Political News in Zimbabwe Tabloidisation of Political News in Zimbabwe: The Worst Case Scenario Conclusions on the Tabloidisation of Political News in Zimbabwe References Part IV: Post-Mugabe Economy, Gender and Operation Restore Legacy Chapter 12: Primitive Accumulation and Mugabe’s Extroverted Economy: What Now Under the Second Republic? Introduction The State and Development in Africa (Mis-) Understanding the African State Critiquing Zimbabwe’s Economic Development Trajectory Primitive Accumulation and Renewed Rush for African Resources Zimbabwe’s Extroverted Economy The National Question, Sovereign Accumulation and Regional Integration Inclusive Social Development Conclusion References Chapter 13: The Idea of a New Zimbabwe Post-Mugabe Introduction The Zimbabwean ‘Problem’ The Fall of Mugabe and the Rise of Mnangagwa Fixing the Zimbabwean Problem Building Trust and Confidence Democratic Processes Administrative Processes Getting the Most Out of Limited Public Resources Corruption Resource Wastage Public Procurement Process A Culture of Constitutionalism Rule of Law Respect for State Institutions Redefining the Relationship Between the State and Its Citizens Economic Reforms Currency Reforms Disposal of Non-Performing State-Owned Enterprises Investment The Stimulation of Local Production and the Role of the Reserve Bank Vertical Power-Sharing The Democratic Benefit The Development Benefit Keeping the Nation Together International Integration Conclusion References Chapter 14: Misogyny, Sexism and Hegemonic Masculinity in Zimbabwe’s Operation Restore Legacy Introduction Background and Context Literature Review: Gendered Zimbabwean Public Sphere Theoretical Context: Hegemonic Masculinity Methodology Findings ‘General Chiwenga give us a boob-less commander-in-chief’ ‘Like Jezebel, Grace Authored the Downfall of her Husband’ Conclusion References Chapter 15: Foreign Direct Investment in the Post-Mugabe Era Introduction What Is Foreign Direct Investment? Understanding Sources of FDI The Nature of MNEs Motives of MNEs Host Market Determinants of FDI The Role of Government in Business Internationalization Capital Market and Inward FDI Conclusion References Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises A Tale of Broken Promises: Zimbabwe After Mugabe False Expectations, False Change Failed Political Reform Fixed and Flawed Elections Leopards Can’t Change Their Spots A Corrupt and Predatory Elite A Failed Economy Revolving Coup Door? Index This book is the first to tackle the difficult and complex politics of transition in Zimbabwe, with deep historical analysis. Its focus is on a very problematic political culture that is proving very hard to transcend. At the center of this culture is an unstable but resilient 'nationalist-military' alliance crafted during the anti-colonial liberation struggle in the 1970s. Inevitably, violence, misogyny and masculinity are constitutive of the political culture. Economically speaking, the culture is that of a bureaucratic, parasitic, primitive accumulation and corruption, which include invasion and emptying of state coffers by a self-styled 'Chimurenga aristocracy.' However, this 'Chimurenga aristocracy' is not cohesive, as the politics that led to Robert Mugabe's ousting from power was preceded by dirty and protracted internal factionalism. At the center of the factional politics was the 'first family', Robert Mugabe and his wife, Grace Mugabe. This book offers a multidisciplinary examination of the complex contemporary politics in Zimbabwe, taking seriously such issues as gender, misogyny, militarism, violence, media, identity, modes of accumulation, ethnicization of politics, attempts to open lines of credit and FDI, national healing, and national question as key variables not only of a complex political culture but also of difficult transitional politics.