The Geology of Mars: Evidence from Earth-Based Analogs (Cambridge Planetary Science, Series Number 5)

Research into the geological processes operating on Mars relies on interpretation of images and other data returned by unmanned orbiters, probes and landers. Such interpretations are based on our knowledge of processes occurring on Earth. Terrestrial analog studies therefore play an important role in understanding the geological features observed on Mars. This is the first book to present direct comparisons between locales on Earth and Mars, and contains contributions from leading planetary geologists to demonstrate the parallels and differences between these two neighboring planets. Mars is characterized by a wide range of geological phenomena that also occur on Earth, including tectonic, volcanic, impact cratering, eolian, fluvial, glacial and possibly lacustrine and marine processes. The book provides terrestrial analogs for newly acquired data sets from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers and Mars Express, and will therefore be a key reference for students and researchers of planetary science. Cover 1 Half-title 3 Series-title 4 Title 5 Copyright 6 Contents 7 Preface: the rationale for planetary analog studies 9 Contributors 13 1 The geology of Mars: new insights and outstanding questions 17 1.1 Introduction 17 1.2 Geological processes and their importance in understanding the history of Mars 24 1.2.1 Impact crater landforms and processes 24 1.2.2 Volcanic landforms and processes 26 1.2.3 Tectonic landforms and processes 36 1.2.4 Fluvial landforms and processes 39 1.2.5 Lake and ocean-related landforms and processes 41 1.2.6 Polar, circumpolar, periglacial, glacial, and mass wasting landforms and processes 42 1.2.7 Eolian landforms and processes 46 1.3 Summary 47 Acknowledgments 48 References 48 2 Impact structures on Earth and Mars 63 2.1 Introduction 63 2.2 Characteristics of impact craters 64 2.2.1 General characteristics of terrestrial and Martian craters 64 2.2.2 Diagnostic features 67 2.2.3 Terrestrial crater studies and their implications to Mars 68 Barringer crater, Arizona, USA 68 Ries, Bavaria, Germany 70 Applications to Mars 72 2.3 Effects of volatiles on crater features 73 2.3.1 Martian craters 73 2.3.2 Terrestrial craters in volatile-rich environments 76 Haughton crater, northern Canada 77 Popigai crater, Siberia, Russia 79 Puchezh-Katunk crater, Russia 80 2.4 Discussion 82 Acknowledgments 83 References 83 3 Terrestrial analogs to the calderas of the Tharsis volcanoes on Mars 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 Observations of deformation and infilling on the Tharsis shields 89 3.2.1 Arsia Mons 89 3.2.2 Pavonis Mons 92 3.2.3 Ascraeus Mons 96 3.2.4 Olympus Mons 100 3.3 Field investigation of terrestrial analogs: Masaya volcano, Nicaragua 104 3.4 Implications for Mars 106 3.5 Conclusions 108 Acknowledgments 108 References 108 4 Volcanic features of New Mexico analogous to volcanic features on Mars 111 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Distribution and characteristics of volcanism in New Mexico 112 4.3 Mega morphology and outcrop scale morphology: scale-dependent preservation of volcanic morphology 114 4.4 Ash flows and calderas 118 4.5 Large radial dikes 121 4.6 Large lava flows and flow fields 124 4.7 Hydromagmatic volcanism 126 4.8 Tertiary Colorado Plateau volcanism 131 4.9 Spring deposit cones 133 Acknowledgments 137 References 137 5 Comparison of flood lavas on Earth and Mars 142 5.1 Introduction 142 5.2 General observations of flood lavas on Mars 143 5.3 General observations of flood lavas on Earth 150 5.4 Interpreting lava morphologies on Earth and Mars 154 5.5 Conclusions 159 References 162 6 Rootless volcanic cones in Iceland and on Mars 167 6.1 Introduction 167 6.2 Martian volcanic cones: inferences from spacecraft data 170 6.3 Rootless cone groups in Iceland: field studies 176 6.3.1 Geologic setting 178 6.3.2 Individual cone characteristics 178 6.3.3 Cone group architecture 180 6.4 Models of rootless cone formation 181 6.5 Discussion 187 6.6 Concluding remarks 189 Acknowledgments 190 References 190 7 Mars interior layered deposits and terrestrial sub-ice volcanoes compared: observations and interpretations of similar geomorphic characteristics 194 7.1 Introduction 194 7.2 Geomorphic commonalities between terrestrial Tuyas and Mars ILDs 198 7.2.1 Gross morphologic characteristics (observed mostly in medium-resolution datasets) 198 7.2.2 Caprock and surface features 203 7.2.3 Flank characteristics 208 7.3 The influence of ambient conditions on terrestrial subglacial eruptions 214 7.3.1 Thermal regime 215 7.3.2 Rheology 217 7.3.3 Composition 217 7.4 Discussion 218 7.5 Conclusions 222 Acknowledgments 223 References 223 8 Lava–sediment interactions on Mars: evidence and consequences 235 8.1 Introduction 235 8.2 Background and previous work 239 8.3 Terrestrial analogs: quiescent peperites 243 8.4 Evidence for lava emplacement beneath dust 245 8.5 Implications for lava flow emplacement 247 8.6 Discussion and conclusions 249 References 249 9 Eolian dunes and deposits in the western United States as analogs to wind-related features on Mars 256 9.1 Introduction 256 9.2 Selected eolian sediment locations 257 9.2.1 Mojave Desert 259 9.2.2 Great Basin 263 9.2.3 High Desert 266 9.2.4 Northwest 268 9.3 A process-based view of the deposits 270 9.4 A post-MGS perspective of eolian deposits on Mars 273 9.5 Discussion 276 9.6 Summary 279 Acknowledgments 279 References 279 Website addresses cited in Chapter 9 287 10 Debris flows in Greenland and on Mars 289 10.1 Introduction: Martian gullies and terrestrial debris flows 289 10.2 The Greenland analogy 291 10.3 Triggering factors in debris flow occurrence 294 10.3.1 The permafrost influence 294 10.3.2 Weathered debris and debris flow occurrence 294 10.4 The obliquity variation scenario: the Martian case 298 10.5 Conclusion 300 Acknowledgments 300 References 301 11 Siberian rivers and Martian outflow channels: an analogy 303 11.1 Introduction 303 11.2 Periglacial environments in Yakutia and on Mars 303 11.3 Comparative approach of hydrogeomorphology: the Lena River and Ares Vallis 305 11.4 Specific hydrosystems dominated by short and intense outburst floods 307 11.5 Erosional processes: evaluation and impacts of thermal erosion on sediment processes 311 11.6 Hydrodynamics of anabranching rivers: application to the Lena River and Ares Vallis 315 11.7 Thermokarst 315 11.8 Conclusions 317 Acknowledgments 318 References 318 12 Formation of valleys and cataclysmic flood channels on Earth and Mars 321 12.1 Introduction 321 12.2 Formation of Martian valleys 322 12.2.1 Comparisons of Martian valleys and terrestrial analogs 322 12.2.2 Proposed origin for Martian valleys 325 12.2.3 Recent debris-flow gullies 328 12.2.4 Reconstruction of Mars paleoclimate using valley landforms: potentials and problems 328 12.3 Cataclysmic flood channels on Mars and Earth 329 12.3.1 Outflow channels on Mars 329 12.3.2 Terrestrial analogs for the outflow channels 334 12.3.3 Scaling of cataclysmic floods and its implications 338 12.4 Conclusions 339 Acknowledgments 340 References 340 13 Playa environments on Earth: possible analogs for Mars 346 13.1 Introduction 346 13.2 Depositional and erosional processes of playa: Chott el Jerid and Chott el Rharsa, Tunisia 347 13.2.1 Playas of southern Tunisia 347 13.2.2 Eolian environment 350 13.2.3 Fluvial environment 352 13.2.4 The chott surface 352 13.2.5 Spring mounds 354 13.2.6 Implications of chott environment for Mars 355 13.3 Morphology of playa. Paleolake landforms: Tsagaan Nuur, the Valley of Lakes, Mongolia 358 13.3.1 Paleoshoreline landforms of playa 358 13.3.2 Tsagaan Nuur topographic depression, the Valley of Lakes 358 13.3.3 Shoreline evidence of past water ponding on Mars 361 13.4 Search for playa sediments: spectral analysis of sediments in Badwater Basin, Death Valley, USA 362 13.4.1 Patterns of mineral deposition in playas 362 13.4.2 An example of infrared remote sensing of a terrestrial playa: Badwater Basin, Death Valley, California, in the thermal infrared 364 13.4.3 Remote sensing of putative playa deposits on Mars and lessons learned from terrestrial analogs 366 13.5 Conclusions 369 Acknowledgments 369 References 369 14 Signatures of habitats and life in Earth’s high-altitude lakes: clues to Noachian aqueous environments on Mars 373 14.1 Introduction 374 14.2 Environmental background 375 14.2.1 Licancabur summit lake 375 14.2.2 Laguna Verde and Laguna Blanca 378 14.3 Present habitats and life 380 14.3.1 Diversity 380 14.3.2 Life in the summit lake 381 14.3.3 High diatom abnormality rate in Laguna Blanca 381 14.3.4 Hypersaline Laguna Verde 383 14.3.5 The effect of UV on biomass 385 14.3.6 Preliminary assessment of genetic diversity 386 14.4 Fossil life 387 14.5 Conclusion 390 Acknowledgments 390 References 391 15 The Canyonlands model for planetary grabens: revised physical basis and implications 395 15.1 Introduction 395 15.2 Historical development of the model 397 15.3 Grabens at Canyonlands National Park, Utah 398 15.4 Planetary implications of the symmetric graben model 401 15.5 Canyonlands in the 1990s and beyond 403 15.6 The new hourglass model for grabens and implications for planetary faulting 407 15.6.1 Lunar grabens revisited 408 15.6.2 Implications for grabens on Venus 412 15.6.3 Martian grabens and Tharsis tectonics 413 15.7 Conclusions 414 Acknowledgments 415 References 415 16 Geochemical analogs and Martian meteorites 424 16.1 Introduction 424 16.2 Accretion of Mars 428 16.3 Major fractionations after accretion 430 16.3.1 Core formation 430 16.3.2 Mantle and crust evolution on Mars 431 16.4 Chemical alteration processes on Mars and the trapping of water in the Martian crust 434 16.5 Origin of the Martian soil 437 16.5.1 Rock component of the soil 438 16.5.2 Mobile element component 440 16.5.3 Meteoritic component 442 16.6 Conclusions 442 Acknowledgments 442 References 443 17 Integrated analog mission design for planetary exploration with humans and robots 448 17.1 Introduction 448 17.2 Design and evaluation of analog missions 449 17.2.1 Identification of mission to be simulated 449 17.2.2 Analog missions and fidelity 450 Analog categories and their fidelity parameters 451 Case studies and metrics 455 17.3 A detailed case study of the Haughton remote science experiment (horse): evaluation of human vs. teleoperated robotic... 455 17.3.1 Case study goals 462 17.3.2 Introduction 465 17.3.3 Formulation issues 466 Definitions of science productivity in exploration 466 Effects of prior experience, initial conditions 466 Shirtsleeve geologist as a control 467 Need to compare modes of exploration 467 17.3.4 Procedure 468 Assume advanced rover capabilities 468 Mars-analog field site in the Arctic 469 17.3.5 Remote science experiment design 470 Local and trunk wireless networks 470 Virtual presence capability during rover tests 471 Tests using HS prototype spacesuit 471 "Shirtsleeved"-geologist surveys 472 17.3.6 Case study results 473 17.3.7 Discussion 473 17.3.8 HoRSE case study conclusions 477 17.4 Conclusions 477 Acknowledgments 478 References 478 Index 481 James W. Head James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] -- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] -- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein -- Goro Komatsu and Victor R. Baker James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] -- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein -- Goro Komatsu and Victor R. Baker -- Goro Komatsu ... [et al.] James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] -- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein -- Goro Komatsu and Victor R. Baker -- Goro Komatsu ... [et al.] -- Nathalie A. Cabrol ... [et al.] James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] -- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein -- Goro Komatsu and Victor R. Baker -- Goro Komatsu ... [et al.] -- Nathalie A. Cabrol ... [et al.] -- Richard A. Schultz ... [et al.] James W. Head -- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin -- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland -- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman -- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen -- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson -- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie -- Tracy K.P. Gregg -- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams -- François Costard ... [et al.] -- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein -- Goro Komatsu and Victor R. Baker -- Goro Komatsu ... [et al.] -- Nathalie A. Cabrol ... [et al.] -- Richard A. Schultz ... [et al.] -- Horton E. Newsom James W. Head-- Nadine G. Barlow, Virgil Sharpton, and Ruslan O. Kuzmin-- Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Andrew J.L. Harris, and Scott K. Rowland-- Larry S. Crumpler, Jayne C. Aubele, and James R. Zimbelman-- Laszlo Keszthelyi and Alfred McEwen-- Sarah A. Fagents and Thorvaldur Thordarson-- Mary G. Chapman and John L. Smellie-- Tracy K.P. Gregg-- James R. Zimbelman and Steven H. Williams-- François Costard ... [et al.]-- François Costard, E. Gautier, and D. Brunstein-- Goro Komatsu and Victor R. Baker-- Goro Komatsu ... [et al.]-- Nathalie A. Cabrol ... [et al.]-- Richard A. Schultz ... [et al.]-- Horton E. Newsom-- Kelly Snook ... [et al.]. With the prospect of a manned mission to Mars still a long way in the future, research into the geological processes operating there continues to rely on interpretation of images and other data returned by unmanned orbiters, probes, and landers. Such interpretations are necessarily based on our knowledge of processes occurring on Earth. Terrestrial analog studies therefore play an important role in understanding the origin of geological features observed on Mars.

This book presents contributions from leading planetary geologists to demonstrate the parallels and differences between these two neighboring planets, and to provide a deeper understanding of the evolution of the Solar System. Mars is characterized by a wide range of geological phenomena that also occur on Earth, including tectonic, volcanic, impact cratering, aeolian, fluvial, glacial, and possibly lacustrine, and marine processes. This is the first book to present direct comparisons between locales on Earth and Mars and to provide terrestrial analogs for newly acquired data sets from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers, and Mars Express. The results of these analog studies provide new insights into the role of different processes in the geological evolution of Mars. This book will therefore be a key reference for students and researchers of planetary science.

The Rationale For Planetary Analog Studies -- The Geology Of Mars -- Impact Structures On Earth And Mars -- Terrestrial Analogs To The Calderas Of The Tharsis Volcanoes On Mars -- Volcanic Features Of New Mexico Analogous To Volcanic Features On Mars -- Comparison Of Flood Lavas On Earth And Mars -- Rootless Volcanic Cones On Iceland And On Mars -- Mars Interior Layered Deposits And Terrestrial Sub-ice Volcanoes Compared -- Lava-sediment Interactions On Mars -- Eolian Dunes And Deposits In The Western United States As Analogs To Wind-related Features On Mars -- Debris Flows In Greenland And On Mars -- Siberian Rivers And Martian Outflow Channels -- Formation Of Valleys And Cataclysmic Flood Channels On Earth And Mars -- Playa Environments On Earth -- Signatures Of Habitats And Life In Earth's High-altitude Lakes -- The Canyonlands Model For Planetary Grabens -- Geochemical Analogs And Martian Meteorites -- Integrated Analog Mission Design For Planetary Exploration With Humans And Robots. Edited By M.g. Chapman. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Research into the geological processes operating on Mars relies on interpretation of images and other data returned by unmanned orbiters, probes and landers. Such interpretations are based on our knowledge of processes occurring on Earth Terrestrial analog studies therefore play an important role in understanding the geological features observed on Mars. This 2007 book presents direct comparisons between locales on Earth and Mars, and contains contributions from leading planetary geologists to demonstrate the parallels and differences between these two neighboring planets. Mars is characterized by a wide range of geological phenomena that also occur on Earth, including tectonic, volcanic, impact cratering, eolian, fluvial, glacial and possibly lacustrine and marine processes. The book provides terrestrial analogs for data sets from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Exploration Rovers and Mars Express, and will therefore be a key reference for students and researchers of planetary science.