The Geographies of COVID-19 : Geospatial Stories of a Global Pandemic

This volume of case studies focuses on the geographies of COVID-19 around the world. These geographies are located in both time and space concentrating on both first- and second-order impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. First-order impacts are those associated with the immediate response to the pandemic that include tracking number of deaths and cases, testing, access to hospitals, impacts on essential workers, searching for the origins of the virus and preventive treatments such as vaccines and contact tracing. Second-order impacts are the result of actions, practices, and policies in response to the spread of the virus, with longer-term effects on food security, access to health services, loss of livelihoods, evictions, and migration. Further, the COVID-19 pandemic will be prolonged due to the onset of variants as well as setting the stage for similar future events. This volume provides a synopsis of how geography and geospatial approaches are used to understand this event and the emerging “new normal.” The volume's approach is necessarily selective due to the global reach of the pandemic and the broad sweep of second-order impacts where important issues may be left out. However, the book is envisioned as the prelude to an extended conversation about adaptation to complex circumstances using geospatial tools. Using case studies and examples of geospatial analyses, this volume adopts a geographic lens to highlight the differences and commonalities across space and time where fundamental inequities are exposed, the governmental response is varied, and outcomes remain uncertain. This moment of global collective experience starkly reveals how inequality is ubiquitous and vulnerable populations – those unable to access basic needs – are increasing. This place-based approach identifies how geospatial analyses and resulting maps depict the pandemic as it ebbs and flows across the globe. Data-driven decision making is needed as we navigate the pandemic and determine ways to address future such events to enable local and regional governments in prioritizing limited resources to mitigate the long-term consequences of COVID-19. Foreword Preface Contents List of Figures List of Tables About the Editors About the Authors Abbreviations Chapter 1: How COVID Changed Our Daily Geographies Daily Geographies Altered Led and Misled by the Map Preconditions That Intensified the Negative Impacts of COVID-19 Questioning Location Tracking References Part I: Geographies of a Pandemic: A Place-Based Approach (Overview) Chapter 2: Geography of the Pandemic Introduction Consequential Geographies Geography, Maps, and Technology Virtual Geography: Interactive Maps and Data Dashboards Geography of the Digital Divide Geographies of Transformation References Chapter 3: Defining First- and Second-Order Impacts Through Maps Introduction Mapping First-Order Impacts Mapping Second-Order Impacts Conclusion References Chapter 4: Quantitative Geographical Approaches in COVID-19 Research: A Review on First- and Second-Order Impacts Introduction Data and Methods Results Papers on Quantitative Geographical Approaches: First-Order Impacts Papers on Quantitative Geographical Approaches: Second-Order Impacts Conclusion References Chapter 5: COVID-19’s Impact on Geospatial Data: Ethics and Values Introduction Smartphone Ownership Existing Location Data Infrastructure Location-Based Technologies for the COVID-19 Pandemic Ethical Considerations for Digital COVID-19 Tools Discussion Conclusion References Chapter 6: The City and the Pandemic: The Cities’ COVID Mitigation Mapping (C2M2) Program Introduction Fine Scale Human Geography Data Is Needed to Understand Cities, Especially During the COVID-19 Pandemic Local Partnerships Are Invaluable for Mapping Urban Areas During a Crisis Partnerships to Apply Geospatial Tools to Examine COVID-19 Second-Order Impacts; the Cities’ COVID Mitigation Mapping (C2M2) Program Building Partnerships to Understand Communities Using Geospatial Tools to Generate Open Data Sharing Results About COVID-19 Second-Order Impacts Outcomes and Impacts of C2M2 C2M2 Africa Hub C2M2 Asia Hub C2M2 Latin America Hub Conclusion and Lessons Learned for Geospatial Partnerships References Part II: Global Impacts, Local Responses (Overview) Chapter 7: Improving Access to Health Services in Mongolia via Open Data During and Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic Introduction Impacts of COVID-19 on Health Service Access in Mongolia Examples of Reported Cases of the Impact of Health Service Access Health Service Information Access Behavior State of Data on Available Health Services Challenges with Open Data in Mongolia Description of the Health Service Information Portal Conclusion About Public Lab Mongolia References Chapter 8: The Inequities in the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic Introduction Inequity in COVID-19 Testing Rates, Confirmed Cases, and Mortality Testing Rates Confirmed Cases Mortality Discussion and Policy Implications Inequity in Stay-At-Home Compliance and Short-/Long-Term Recovery Stay-At-Home Compliance Short-/Long-Term Recovery Discussion and Policy Implications Inequity in Vaccine Tendency, Vaccination Allocation, and Vaccination Rate Vaccine Tendency Vaccine Allocation Vaccination Rate Discussion and Policy Implications References Chapter 9: The Latine Community and COVID-19: Nuances, Experiences, and Data Introduction Latine Community: Who “Counts” and Why? COVID-19 and Data on Latine Population Improving Public Health Data and Experiences of Marginalized Communities Conclusion References Chapter 10: An Overview of the Impact of COVID-19 on Nepal’s International Tourism Industry Introduction COVID-19, Lockdowns, and Cancellation of VNY 2020 Prolonged Lockdown and Travel Restrictions Impact on the Tourism Industry Economic Impact Non-economic Impact Expectations from the Government Businesses Workforce Government’s Response Recommendations Conclusion References Chapter 11: Data and Dashboards for Measuring the Social Impact of COVID-19 in African Cities Introduction Measuring Impact Facility-Based Data Social Metrics (Healthcare, Education, Access to Water) Data Model Data Collection Process Analytics and Dashboards Sample Dashboards for Access to Care in Bukavu Sample Dashboards for Access to Water in Nairobi Community Services Conclusion References Chapter 12: COVID-19 and Domestic Violence Complaints in Quito, Ecuador: Temporal and Spatial Patterns and Drivers Introduction Study Area: Quito City Data and Methods Geographical Analysis Statistical Analysis Results Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Domestic Violence Complaints Drivers of Domestic Violence Complaints Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 13: Mapping COVID-19: Should It Be Based on the Incidence Rate? A Case Study in China Introduction Data and Methods COVID-19 Epidemic Data Population Data Statistical Methods Results COVID-19 Epidemics in China During the Primary Peak Period Association of COVID-19 Epidemic with the Population in China at the City Level Association of COVID-19 Epidemic with the Population in China at the Provincial Level Discussion Conclusion References Chapter 14: Regional Patterns of the Pandemic: A View from Aotearoa New Zealand Introduction The Emergence of COVID-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand The Geography of COVID-19 in Aotearoa New Zealand Ongoing Outbreaks: An (Ever) Evolving Pandemic Vaccination: Vax to the Max Wider Impacts: From Pandemic to Syndemic Conclusions: Policy Implications and Future Work References Chapter 15: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Spatial and Place-Based Analysis Introduction Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Population in Australia Existing Inequities and COVID-19 Risk Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander COVID-19 Advisory Group and Pandemic Management Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations (ACCHOs) Responses to COVID-19 National Level State and Territory Levels COVID-19 Outbreaks and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Place-Based Examples of Localised Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic First Nations COVID-19 Response (NSW) VACCHO Vaccine Vans (Victoria) Northern Territory Response to COVID-19 Vaccination Access and Uptake Funding for the Pandemic Conclusion References Chapter 16: Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on the Livelihoods of Male Commercial Boda-Boda Motorists in Uganda Introduction Methodology Results Perceived COVID-19 Pandemic Effects on the Livelihood of Boda-Boda Motorists Perceived COVID-19 Pandemic on Food Security Perceived Income During the COVID-19 Pandemic Discussion Conclusions and Recommendations References Part III: Lessons Learned and New Horizons (Overview) Chapter 17: Geospatial Techniques for Mapping the Spatial Trajectories of COVID-19 Introduction Materials and Methods GIS and Numerical Analysis of the COVID-19 Spatial Trajectory: A Global View Results Modeling and Mapping of COVID-19 Spreading Spatial Trajectories Conclusion References Chapter 18: Digital Geographies and Digital Surveillance Technologies: Power and Space in the Italian Society Under Control for Public Health New Spatiality During the Pandemic Bodies and Spaces During the Pandemic: The Italian Case Private and Public Spaces During the Pandemic: The Italian Case Digital Surveillance Technologies: The Italian Case Governmentality and Digital Surveillance Technology The Italian Immuni App Conclusions References Chapter 19: Resilience Amid Uncertainty: COVID-19 Pandemic, the Urban Informal Sector, and Livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa Introduction The Urban Informal Sector in Context COVID-19 Pandemic in Sub-Saharan Africa COVID-19 Pandemic Mitigation Strategies, Government Responses, and the Exclusion of the Informal Sector: Examples from Kenya What the COVID-19 Control Measures and Exclusion from Kenyan Government Relief Measures Meant for the Urban Informal Sector Other Examples from Sub-Saharan Africa What May Explain the Relative Resilience of the Urban Informal Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa in the Face of Uncertainties Prompted by COVID-19-Related Lockdowns and Closures? Conclusion and Recommendations for Further Work References Chapter 20: Freshwater Resources and COVID-19 Introduction COVID-19, Water, and Public Health COVID-19, Water Quality, and Freshwater Ecosystems COVID-19, Freshwater Biodiversity, and Fisheries Conclusions References Chapter 21: Preventing Pandemics: Earth Observations for One Health Introduction Wildlife-Based Approaches Environment-Based Approaches Human-Based Approaches Discussion References Chapter 22: Enabling Accelerated Research in Times of Need: The National Science Foundation’s Response to COVID-19 in 2020 Introduction History and Evolution of RAPIDs Approach Findings RAPID DCL History COVID-19 DCLs Summary Across All NSF-Supported COVID-19 Research Research Highlights Highlights from COVID-19 RAPID Response Projects Highlights from Longer-Term COVID-19 Projects Conclusions References Chapter 23: Conclusion: The Consequences of COVID-19 – What Is Next? What Is Next? References Glossary: The Lexicon of the Pandemic Through Geographic and Geospatial Terms Index