The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition (Mycology Series)

The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition addresses many of the questions related to the observations, characterizations, and functional attributes of fungal assemblages and their interaction with the environment and other organisms. This edition promotes awareness of the functional methods of classification over taxonomic methods, and approaches the concept of fungal communities from an ecological perspective, rather than from a fungicentric view. It has expanded to examine issues of global and local biodiversity, the problems associated with exotic species, and the debate concerning diversity and function. The third edition also focuses on current ecological discussions - diversity and function, scaling issues, disturbance, and invasive species - from a fungal perspective. In order to address these concepts, the book examines the appropriate techniques to identify fungi, calculate their abundance, determine their associations among themselves and other organisms, and measure their individual and community function. This book explains attempts to scale these measures from the microscopic cell level through local, landscape, and ecosystem levels. The totality of the ideas, methods, and results presented by the contributing authors points to the future direction of mycology. dk3133fm.pdf......Page 1 The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition......Page 3 Preface......Page 5 Editors......Page 6 Acknowledgments......Page 7 Contributors......Page 8 Contents......Page 13 THE THOUGHTS BEHIND THIS VOLUME......Page 17 Table of Contents......Page 0 WHAT IS A FUNGAL COMMUNITY?......Page 18 IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF A FUNGAL COMMUNITY......Page 19 FUNCTIONALITY IN FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 20 FUNGAL COMMUNITY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER ORGANISMS......Page 21 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION......Page 22 REFERENCES......Page 23 Section 1: Structure of Fungal Communities......Page 26 1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 27 1.2.1 Linking from Molecules to Individuals......Page 28 1.2.3 Linking from Communities to Ecosystems......Page 29 1.2.4 Linking from Ecosystem Scales to Global Scales......Page 30 1.3.1 Linking from the Microscale to the Plot Scale......Page 31 1.3.2 Linking from the Plot Scale to the Landscape Scale......Page 35 1.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 36 REFERENCES......Page 37 2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 41 2.2.2 Mycosociology......Page 42 2.2.3 Recording......Page 43 2.2.5 Species Concepts......Page 45 2.2.6 Fallacies......Page 46 2.4 HOW TO PROCEED......Page 47 REFERENCES......Page 49 3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 52 3.2.1 Traditional Approach......Page 53 3.2.2 Molecular Approaches......Page 54 3.2.3 Scaling Up......Page 55 3.2.3.1 Temporal Variability......Page 56 3.2.3.2 Spatial Variability......Page 58 3.2.3.3 Factors Controlling Local Species Diversity......Page 59 3.2.3.5 Infraspecific Genetic Variation......Page 60 3.3.1 Field Studies......Page 61 3.3.2 Experimental Studies......Page 62 3.3.3 Refining Ecological Functions: Münchhausen’s Statistical Grid......Page 64 3.4 OUTLOOK......Page 65 REFERENCES......Page 67 4.2 THE ORIGIN OF MARINE FUNGI......Page 73 4.3 THE MARINE COMMUNITY......Page 78 4.5 BIODIVERSITY......Page 79 4.6.1 Saltmarsh Habitats......Page 81 4.6.2 Mangrove Habitats......Page 83 4.7 OCEANIC WATERS......Page 86 4.8.1 Oomycota......Page 87 4.8.2 Labyrinthulomycetes......Page 88 4.9 FUNCTION OF FUNGI IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT......Page 89 4.10.1 Lichens......Page 90 4.11 THE HUMAN EFFECT......Page 91 4.12 ESTIMATES OF MARINE FUNGI NUMBERS......Page 92 4.13 SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM GOALS OF MARINE FUNGI SCIENCE......Page 93 REFERENCES......Page 95 5.1.1 Definition and Distribution of Fungal Communities......Page 105 5.2.1 Graminicolous Fungi......Page 106 5.2.2 Folicolous Fungi......Page 108 5.2.3 Fruit- and Seed-Inhabiting Fungi......Page 112 5.2.4.1 Characters of Freshwater Fungal Communities in the Tropics......Page 113 5.3 TROPICAL FUNGAL COMMUNITIES AND THEIR SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS......Page 114 5.3.2 Freshwater Lignicolous Fungi......Page 115 5.3.3 Why There Are More Tropical Freshwater Ascomycetes with Special Adaptations......Page 116 5.5.1 Mangrove Fungi......Page 117 5.5.2.2 Why Are Fungi Vertically Distributed?......Page 118 5.6.3 Growth Rates......Page 119 5.8 HOST SPECIFICITY, EXCLUSIVITY, AND RECURRENCE......Page 120 5.9 FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 121 REFERENCES......Page 122 6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 128 6.2 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL CRUSTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION......Page 130 6.3 ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF SOIL CRUST LICHENS......Page 131 6.3.1 Carbon Exchange......Page 132 6.3.3 Other Aspects of Soil Fertility......Page 137 6.4.1 Water Relations......Page 139 6.4.2 Soil Stability......Page 140 6.4.3 Interactions with Vascular Plants......Page 141 6.4.4 Interaction with Other Soil Food Web Organisms......Page 142 6.5 ANNUAL DYNAMICS OF BIOLOGICAL SOIL CRUST LICHENS......Page 143 6.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 144 REFERENCES......Page 145 7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 150 7.2 DISPERSAL OF FUNGI AND AVAILABILITY OF PROPAGULES IN SUCCESSIONAL ENVIRONMENTS......Page 153 7.3.1 Host Ranges of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 156 7.3.2 Host Receptivity......Page 157 7.4.1 Environmental Tolerances of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 158 7.4.2 Environmental Tolerances as Drivers of Successional Community Change......Page 162 7.5.1 Herbivory as a Modifier of Fungal Communities......Page 163 7.5.2 Soil Bacterial Fungistasis......Page 164 7.5.3 Positive Interactions among Mycorrhizal Fungi and Bacteria......Page 165 7.5.4 Interactions among Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 166 7.6.1 Synopsis of the Proposed Model for Succession of Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 168 7.6.2.1 Can These Assembly Rules Be Applied across Ecosystems?......Page 169 REFERENCES......Page 170 8.1 AN EXAMPLE OF SUBSTRATE SUCCESSION: THE COLONIZATION OF PINE NEEDLES BY FUNGUS FLORA......Page 180 8.2 STUDIES ON OTHER CONIFEROUS SPECIES......Page 183 8.3 HOW SHOULD OBSERVED SUCCESSIONS BE EXPLAINED?......Page 184 REFERENCES......Page 186 9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 192 9.2.1 Which Fungal Species Are in Which Hosts?......Page 195 9.2.3 What Is the Life Cycle for Tropical Endophytic Fungi?......Page 197 9.2.4 What Is the Mechanism of Host Defense?......Page 198 9.3 CONCLUSIONS......Page 199 REFERENCES......Page 200 10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 203 10.3 DISADVANTAGES OF CLASSICAL METHODS......Page 204 10.4.3 Monitoring......Page 205 10.5.2 Substrate Based......Page 206 10.5.2.3 Sporocarps on Soil and Ectomycorrhizal Associates of Trees......Page 207 10.5.4.3 Particle Filtration......Page 208 10.5.6 Transect-Based Methods......Page 209 10.6.1.1 Species-Area Curves......Page 210 10.6.1.2 Species-Substrate Unit Curves......Page 211 10.6.2 Analysis of Species-Accumulation Curves......Page 212 10.6.3 Nonparametric Species Richness Estimators......Page 213 10.6.5.1 Cluster Analysis......Page 214 10.6.5.2 Principal Components Analysis......Page 215 10.6.5.4 Correspondence Analysis......Page 216 10.6.6 Hypothesis Testing......Page 217 10.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 218 REFERENCES......Page 219 11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 225 11.2.1 Substrate Utilization Assays Using Microtitration Plates......Page 227 11.3 DNA-BASED METHODS FOR ANALYZING COMMUNITY DIVERSITY......Page 229 11.3.1.1 Profiling Based on Size Differences of PCR Products after Restriction Digestion: PCR-RFLP and T-RFLP......Page 230 11.3.1.2 Profiling Based on Differences in Melting Temperatures: DGGE and TGGE......Page 232 11.3.2.1 Identification through Phylogenetic Placement......Page 233 11.3.2.2 Oligonucleotide Fingerprinting and Microarrays......Page 234 11.3.3.1 PCR Biases and Artifacts......Page 235 11.3.3.2 Data Interpretation Pitfalls......Page 236 11.4.1 Quantitative PCR......Page 238 11.4.2 Visualization to Estimate Biomass......Page 240 11.5 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES......Page 241 REFERENCES......Page 242 12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 250 12.2.1 Mutation......Page 251 12.2.3 Mating Systems......Page 252 12.2.5 Genetic Drift......Page 253 12.3.1.1 Estimating Gene Variation......Page 254 12.3.1.2 Estimating Genotype Variation......Page 257 12.3.2 Population Subdivision......Page 258 12.3.3 Inference of Evolutionary Forces......Page 261 12.3.3.1 Mating Systems......Page 264 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 266 REFERENCES......Page 267 13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 273 13.2 GENERAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 274 13.3 FUNGAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 275 13.4 DISCUSSION OF GENERAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 276 13.4.1 Application of General Ecology Terminology to Fungi: Distinguishing Features of Fungi......Page 278 13.5 DISCUSSION OF FUNGAL ECOLOGY TERMINOLOGY......Page 279 13.6.1 Nutritive Interactions......Page 280 13.6.2 Nonnutritive Interspecific Interactions......Page 281 13.7 PROPOSED CLASSES OF NONNUTRITIVE INTERSPECIFIC INTERACTIONS......Page 282 13.7.1 Coantagonism......Page 283 13.7.4 Cohabitation......Page 286 13.7.6 Mutualism......Page 287 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 288 REFERENCES......Page 289 Section 2: Function of Fungal Communities......Page 292 14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 293 14.2 CELLULAR AND SUBCELLULAR IDENTIFICATION, LOCALIZATION, AND MAPPING OF ELEMENTS......Page 294 14.3 PREPARATION OF SAMPLES FOR ELEMENT ANALYSIS......Page 295 14.4 MICROANALYTICAL STUDIES ON STRUCTURAL AND BIOCHEMICAL DIFFERENTIATION DURING MORPHOGENESIS OF FUNGI AND FUNGAL–PLANT INTERACTION......Page 296 14.5 TRANSFORMATION OF SOIL MINERALS BY FUNGI......Page 297 14.6.1 Extracellular Sequestration of Heavy Metals......Page 298 14.6.3 Metal Chelation within Cytosol and Vacuoles......Page 300 14.7 METAL-ACCUMULATING PROPERTIES OF LICHEN-FORMING FUNGI......Page 302 14.8 HEAVY METAL/MYCORRHIZA INTERACTIONS......Page 304 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 305 REFERENCES......Page 306 15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 312 15.3 MULTIPHOTON MICROSCOPY......Page 313 15.4 SPECTRAL IMAGING......Page 319 15.6 MYCOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS......Page 322 15.6.2 In Situ Hybridization......Page 323 15.6.3 Affinity and Vital Fluorescent Probes......Page 324 15.6.5 Four-Dimensional Imaging......Page 325 15.6.6 Multiphoton Imaging of Fungi......Page 326 15.6.7 Plant–Fungal Interactions......Page 327 REFERENCES......Page 329 16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 335 16.2 EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS OF ENZYME PRODUCTION......Page 336 16.3 ENZYMATIC POTENTIALS EXPLORED IN AXENIC CULTURES......Page 337 16.4 ENZYME ACTIVITIES IN INTACT MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS......Page 340 16.5 ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES......Page 342 16.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 345 REFERENCES......Page 347 17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 353 17.2.1 Oxygenases and Peroxidases......Page 354 17.2.3 N and P Metabolism......Page 356 17.3 ACTIVITY PATTERNS AT COMMUNITY LEVEL......Page 357 REFERENCES......Page 361 18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 365 18.2 NATURAL ABUNDANCE MEASUREMENTS......Page 366 18.2.1 Carbon Isotopes......Page 367 18.2.2 Causes of δ13C Patterns......Page 371 18.2.3 Nitrogen Isotopes......Page 373 18.2.4 Mycoheterotrophic Plants......Page 378 18.3 COMPOUND-SPECIFIC MEASUREMENTS AND ISOTOPIC TRACERS......Page 379 18.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 380 REFERENCES......Page 381 19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 386 19.2 DIVERSITY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAL FUNGI......Page 387 19.3 PLANT HOST RESPONSES TO ECTOMYCORRHIZAL DIVERSITY......Page 388 19.4 POLLUTION EFFECTS ON ECTOMYCORRHIZAL DIVERSITY......Page 390 19.5 A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ECTOMYCORRHIZAL DIVERSITY FUNCTIONING......Page 393 REFERENCES......Page 396 20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 402 20.2.1 Viruses of the Chestnut Blight Fungus, Cryphonectria parasitica......Page 403 20.2.3 Release of Transgenic, Virus-Containing Isolates of C. parasitica into the Fungal Community......Page 404 20.2.4 Impact of Viruses on Fungal Epidemics: Dutch Elm Disease......Page 405 20.2.5 Horizontal Transmission of Viruses to Other Species......Page 406 20.2.6 Using Viruses as Molecular Markers in the Fungal Community......Page 408 20.2.8 Other Fungal Virus Systems......Page 409 20.3.1 Evolution of Interactions between Fungal and Bacterial Parasites of Fungal Hosts......Page 410 20.3.2 Bacterial Diseases of Cultivated and Edible Fungi......Page 411 20.3.3 Fungal Diseases of Cultivated and Edible Fungi......Page 412 20.3.4 Bacterial Hyperparasites/Pathogens of Fungi......Page 413 20.4 FUNGAL HYPERPARASITES OR MYCOPARASITES......Page 415 REFERENCES......Page 416 21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 425 21.2 NATURAL HISTORY OF FUNGAL ENDOPHYTE–GRASSES SYMBIOSES......Page 426 21.3.2 Pathogen Assemblages......Page 428 21.3.3 The Rhizosphere Community......Page 429 21.3.5 Plant Assemblages: Diversity and Succession......Page 430 21.4.1 Potential Mechanisms......Page 432 21.5 ECOSYSTEM CONSEQUENCES OF FUNGAL ENDOPHYTES......Page 433 21.6 THE ROLE OF FUNGAL GENOTYPE......Page 435 REFERENCES......Page 437 22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 445 22.2.1 Variation in Plant Response to Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 446 22.2.2 Variation in Fungal Response to Plants......Page 447 22.2.3.1 Plant–AM Fungal Mutualism......Page 448 22.2.3.2 AM Fungal Parasitism of Plants......Page 449 22.2.3.4 Competition between Plants and Mycorrhizal Fungi......Page 450 22.3.1 Modification of Resource Competition by AM Fungi......Page 451 22.3.2 Carbon Transfer in Common Mycorrhizal Networks......Page 452 22.3.3 Indirect Effects between Plants Mediated by Changes in AM Fungal Density......Page 453 22.3.3.2 Interactions between Ecto- and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Plants......Page 454 22.3.3.4 Interactions with Mycoheterotrophic Plants......Page 455 22.3.4.2 Host Specificity in AM Fungal Growth Promotion......Page 456 22.4 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING THE MECHANISMS......Page 457 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 458 REFERENCES......Page 459 23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 469 23.2 PATHOGENESIS AS A LIFE HISTORY STRATEGY......Page 471 23.3 THE PLANT DISEASE TRIANGLE......Page 472 23.4 NATIVES AND EXOTICS......Page 473 23.5 EFFECTS OF INDIGINOUS PATHOGENS ON NATURAL PLANT COMMUNITIES: EXAMPLES FROM WESTERN CONIFEROUS FORESTS......Page 474 23.6 PATHOGENS AND OLD-GROWTH FORESTS......Page 479 23.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 480 REFERENCES......Page 481 24.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 483 24.2.1 Epichloë typhina (Pers.) Tul.......Page 485 24.2.2 Epichloë clarkii J.F. White......Page 488 24.2.3 Epichloë sylvatica Leuchtm. et Schardl......Page 489 24.2.5 Epichloë festucae Leuchtm. et al.......Page 490 24.2.6 Epichloë amarillans J.F. White......Page 491 24.2.8 Epichloë brachyelytri Schardl et Leuchtm.......Page 492 24.2.10 Epichloë bromicola Leuchtm. et Schardl......Page 493 24.3.1 Neotyphodium typhinum (G. Morgan-Jones et W. Gams) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 494 24.3.2 Neotyphodium coenophialum (G. Morgan-Jones et W. Gams) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 495 24.3.4 Neotyphodium lolii × Epichloë typhina......Page 496 24.3.5 Neotyphodium occultans Moon et al.......Page 497 24.3.7 Neotyphodium siegelii Craven et al.......Page 498 24.3.9 Neotyphodium starrii (J.F. White et G. Morgan-Jones) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 499 24.3.11 Neotyphodium chisosum (J.F. White et G. Morgan-Jones) A.E. Glenn et al.......Page 500 24.3.15 Neotyphodium inebrians nom. provis. and N. gansuense C.J. Li......Page 501 24.3.17 Acremonium chilense G. Morgan-Jones et J.F. White......Page 502 24.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 505 REFERENCES......Page 506 25.1 OVERVIEW OF CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 512 25.2 HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 513 25.3.1 Host Shifting in Clavicipitaceae......Page 514 25.5 EVOLUTION OF DEFENSIVE MUTUALISM......Page 516 25.6 DIVERSITY OF STROMAL MORPHOLOGY IN CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 517 25.8 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS IN THE CLAVICIPITACEAE......Page 519 25.9 CONIDIAL STATES AS INDICATORS OF EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS......Page 521 REFERENCES......Page 523 26.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 526 26.2 HOSTS ASSOCIATIONS AND EVOLUTION......Page 528 26.3 COMPETITION FOR AND WITHIN THE ENDOPHYTIC NICHE: THE BALANSIEAE......Page 530 26.5 BIODEFENSIVE COMPOUNDS......Page 531 26.5.3 Steroidal and Related Compounds......Page 532 26.5.5 Ergot Alkaloids......Page 533 REFERENCES......Page 534 27.1.1 Algicolous Fungi: Historical Background......Page 539 27.1.2 Fungal Taxonomical Groups Associated with Algae......Page 544 27.1.3 Range of Seaweed Supporting Fungi and Host Specificity......Page 546 27.1.4 Geographical Distribution......Page 548 27.2.1 Algal–Fungal Associations......Page 549 27.2.2 Fungal Colonization of Seaweeds......Page 551 27.3.1 Sampling Strategies......Page 555 27.3.2 Fungal Isolate Diversity......Page 556 27.3.3 Molecular Approaches to Assessing Fungal Diversity......Page 558 27.3.3.2 Molecular Separation and Identification......Page 559 27.3.3.4 Molecular Diversity of Fungi Associated with the Fucus serratus Canopy......Page 567 27.4.1 Fungal Exploitation of Algal Nutrients......Page 571 27.4.2 Fungal Vertical Distribution......Page 573 27.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 575 REFERENCES......Page 576 28.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 586 28.3 FUNGAL GRAZING SOIL FAUNA......Page 587 28.4 FUNGAL RESPONSE TO GRAZING......Page 589 28.5 FUNGIVORY IN THE SOIL FOOD WEB......Page 590 28.6 FUNCTIONAL GUILD CONCEPT......Page 591 28.7 SUCCESSION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS DURING DECOMPOSITION......Page 592 28.8 FUNCTION OF TROPHIC INTERACTIONS......Page 595 28.9 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE......Page 596 REFERENCES......Page 597 29.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 604 29.2.1 Obligate Mycophagists......Page 605 29.2.4 Accidental Mycophagists......Page 606 29.3.2 Microelements......Page 607 29.3.4 Fats and Fatty Acids......Page 608 29.4 NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY......Page 609 29.4.1 Diversity in Fungal Diet......Page 611 29.5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 612 REFERENCES......Page 613 30.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 617 30.2 SELECTION PRESSURES FOR EVOLUTION OF A HYPOGEOUS HABIT......Page 618 30.3 MUTATIONS INVOLVED IN SUCCESS OF THE HYPOGEOUS HABIT......Page 619 30.4 EFFECT OF PASSAGE THROUGH A DIGESTIVE TRACT ON SPORES......Page 620 30.5 ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN EFFECTIVE DISPERSAL AND REPRODUCTION OF SEQUESTRATE FUNGI......Page 621 30.7 EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS AND GLOBAL WARMING......Page 623 REFERENCES......Page 624 Section 3: Human Impacts on Fungal Communities and Their Function......Page 628 31.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 629 31.2 HUMAN IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY: THE EXAMPLE OF AGRICULTURE......Page 630 31.3 WHY SHOULD SOCIETY CARE? VALUING BIODIVERSITY......Page 632 31.4 THE FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF FUNGI......Page 633 31.5 WHAT LEVEL OF DIVERSITY LOSS CAN OR SHOULD BE TOLERATED?......Page 634 31.6 MANAGEMENT OF FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 638 31.7 CONCLUSIONS: FUNGAL COMMUNITIES IN AN ECOSYSTEM CONTEXT......Page 640 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 641 REFERENCES......Page 642 32.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 644 32.4 FUNGAL MORPHOLOGY DURING OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH......Page 646 32.5 PHYSIOLOGY OF OLIGOTROPHICALLY GROWING FUNGI......Page 647 32.6 UTILIZATION OF GASES AND VOLATILES BY FUNGI......Page 649 32.7 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI IN WATER AND ACIDS......Page 650 32.8 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI ON SURFACES......Page 651 32.9 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI ON ROCK AND STONE......Page 652 32.11 OLIGOTROPHIC GROWTH OF FUNGI IN SOILS......Page 653 32.12 CONCLUSIONS: FUNGAL OLIGOTROPHY IN PERSPECTIVE......Page 654 REFERENCES......Page 657 33.1 INTRODUCTION: CLIMATE AND DESERTS......Page 660 33.2 PREDICTED CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS......Page 664 33.3.1 Taxonomic Diversity......Page 665 33.3.2 Functional Diversity......Page 673 33.4 FUNGAL ADAPTATIONS......Page 676 33.5 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE......Page 677 REFERENCES......Page 678 34.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 683 34.2 SYMBIOSIS: IT IS ALL ABOUT LIFESTYLES......Page 684 34.3 LIFESTYLE SWITCHING AND FUNGAL TAXONOMY......Page 686 34.4.1 Temperature Tolerance......Page 688 34.4.3 Drought Tolerance......Page 689 34.5 HOW ADAPTIVE ARE SYMBIOSES?......Page 690 34.7 ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY RAMIFICATIONS......Page 692 REFERENCES......Page 693 35.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 696 35.2.1 Increased Level of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide......Page 697 35.2.2 Temperature Changes......Page 698 35.2.3 Water Availability......Page 699 35.2.4 Altered Ultraviolet Radiation......Page 700 35.2.5 Observed Effects of Climate Change on Soil Crust Lichen Communities......Page 701 35.3 LAND USE AND LICHENS IN SOIL CRUST COMMUNITIES......Page 702 35.3.1 Surface Disturbance......Page 703 35.3.2 Recovery......Page 705 REFERENCES......Page 707 36.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 712 36.2 POTENTIAL MECHANISMS FOR CO2 EFFECTS......Page 713 36.3 NUTRIENT ACQUISITION STRATEGIES OF FUNGAL GROUPS......Page 715 36.3.3 Functional Groups of Saprotrophic Fungi......Page 718 36.4.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Communities......Page 720 36.4.2 Ectomycorrhizal Communities......Page 721 36.5 SUMMARY......Page 722 REFERENCES......Page 723 37.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 731 37.2 FUNGAL COMMUNITIES IN METAL-POLLUTED SOILS AND METAL-RICH ENVIRONMENTS......Page 732 37.3.1 Toxicity......Page 735 37.3.3 Enzyme Activity......Page 736 37.4 MORPHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES OF MYCELIAL SYSTEMS IN RESPONSE TO TOXIC METAL STRESS......Page 737 37.5 MECHANISMS OF METAL RESISTANCE AND TOLERANCE......Page 740 37.6.1.1 Mechanisms......Page 743 37.6.2.1 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation......Page 744 37.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNGI IN GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES OF METALS: PERSPECTIVES FOR BIOREMEDIATION......Page 745 37.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 746 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 747 REFERENCES......Page 748 38.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 757 38.3 HOT PARTICLE DESTRUCTION BY SOIL MICROMYCETES......Page 758 38.4 RADIOACTIVITY LEADING TO CHANGES IN FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 759 38.6 RADIONUCLIDE TRANSFER FROM SOIL INTO PLANTS AS AFFECTED BY MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI......Page 761 38.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND OUTLOOK......Page 762 REFERENCES......Page 763 39.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 767 39.2.2 N Deposition......Page 768 39.3.1 Variety of Study Types and Conditions......Page 769 39.3.2 Field Studies: N Inputs and EMF Sporocarps......Page 770 39.3.3 N Inputs and EMF Communities Belowground......Page 772 39.3.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and N Deposition......Page 775 39.3.6 O3 Effects on Mycorrhizal Community Structure......Page 776 39.3.7 O3 Interactions with Other Pollutants......Page 782 39.4.1 What Do We Mean by Optimality?......Page 783 39.4.2.2 Shifting pH and Mycorrhizal Function......Page 784 39.4.2.4 Integrating Nutrient and C Availability......Page 785 39.4.3 Are Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities Optimized as Resources and Conditions Change?......Page 786 39.6 KNOWLEDGE GAPS......Page 789 39.6.2 What Is the Baseline Community?......Page 790 39.6.4 Critical Loads......Page 791 REFERENCES......Page 792 40.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 800 40.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 801 40.4 KAMYANI MOHYLY......Page 804 40.5 MICROMYCETES IN CULTIVATED SOILS......Page 805 REFERENCES......Page 808 41.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 810 41.2.1 Soil Aggregation, SOM Accrual, and C Sequestration......Page 811 41.2.2 Nutrient Acquisition and Cycling......Page 813 41.3.1 Tillage......Page 815 41.3.2 Monocropping and Fallowing......Page 817 41.4.1 Reduction in Soil Disturbance......Page 818 41.4.2 Cropping Rotations......Page 819 41.4.3 Low-Input Systems......Page 821 41.5 SUMMARY......Page 822 REFERENCES......Page 824 42.2.1 Introduction......Page 830 42.2.2.1 Tree Removal......Page 831 42.2.2.3 Changes in Tree Species......Page 832 42.2.2.4 Site Preparation......Page 833 42.2.3 Effects of Forest Management on Sporocarps of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi......Page 834 42.3.2 Methodology......Page 835 42.3.3.1 Tree Removal......Page 836 42.3.3.4 Changes in Tree Species......Page 837 42.4.1 Introduction......Page 838 42.4.2 Disease Triangle......Page 839 42.4.3.1 Root Decay Fungi......Page 840 42.4.3.2 Stem Decay Fungi......Page 841 42.4.3.4 Wilt and Stain Fungi......Page 842 42.4.3.5 Foliar Disease Fungi......Page 843 REFERENCES......Page 844 43.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 853 43.2 WHAT ARE EXOTIC AND INVASIVE SPECIES?......Page 854 43.3 ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY ASPECTS OF FUNGAL INVASIONS......Page 856 43.3.3 Spread and Invasion......Page 857 43.4 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS: INTERACTIONS OF EXOTIC ORGANISMS WITH NATIVE PLANT, ANIMAL, AND FUNGAL COMMUNITIES......Page 859 43.4.1 Exotic Fungal Plant Pathogens......Page 860 43.4.1.1 Exotic Fungal Animal Pathogens......Page 861 43.4.1.2 Exotic Plant Interactions with Native Fungi......Page 862 43.4.1.3 Exotic Animal Interactions with Native Fungi......Page 863 43.4.1.4 Exotic Fungi and Other Microbes Interactions with Native Fungi......Page 864 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 866 REFERENCES......Page 867 Section 4: Preserving Fungal Communities......Page 874 44.2 HOW DO WE CONSERVE FUNGI?......Page 875 44.3 ADDITIONAL THREATS......Page 877 44.4 VEGETATION TYPES: WOODLANDS......Page 878 44.5 GRASSLANDS......Page 881 44.7 MARITIME, RIVARINE, AND WETLANDS; HEATHS......Page 883 44.8 PROGRESS......Page 884 REFERENCES......Page 887 The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition addresses many of the questions related to the observations, characterizations, and functional attributes of fungal assemblages and their interaction with the environment and other organisms. This edition promotes awareness of the functional methods of classification over taxonomic methods, and approaches the concept of fungal communities from an ecological perspective, rather than from a fungicentric view. It has expanded to examine issues of global and local biodiversity, the problems associated with exotic species, and the debate concerning diversity and function.The third edition also focuses on current ecological discussions - diversity and function, scaling issues, disturbance, and invasive species - from a fungal perspective. In order to address these concepts, the book examines the appropriate techniques to identify fungi, calculate their abundance, determine their associations among themselves and other organisms, and measure their individual and community functions. This book explains attempts to scale these measures from the microscopic cell level through local, landscape, and ecosystem levels. The totality of the ideas, methods, and results presented by the contributing authors points to the future direction of mycology. "The Fungal Community : Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition addresses many of the questions related to the observations, characterizations, and functional attributes of fungal assemblages and their interaction with the environment and other organisms. This edition promotes awareness of the functional methods of classifications over taxonomic methods, and approaches the concept of fungal communities from an ecological perspective, rather than from a fungicentric view. It has expanded to examine issues of global and local biodiversity, the problems associated with exotic species, and the debate concerning diversity and function. The third edition also focuses on current ecological discussions - diversity and function, scaling issues, disturbance, and invasive species - from a fungal perspective."--Résumé de l'éditeur (Publisher-supplied data) Bridging the gap between ecological concepts and mycology, The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition addresses many of the questions related to the observations, characterizations, and functional attributes of fungal assemblages and their interaction with the environment and other organisms. This edition promotes awareness of the functional methods of classification over taxonomic methods and approaches the concept of fungal communities from an ecological rather than a fungicentric perspective. New material examines issues of global and local biodiversity, the problems associated with exotic species, and the debate concerning diversity and function.