مرکز اصلاح و تربیت زنان ۳

A comprehensive update of the leading-edge computer graphics textbook that sets the standard for physically-based rendering in the industry and the field, with new material on GPU ray tracing.Photorealistic computer graphics are ubiquitous in today's world, widely used in movies and video games as well as product design and architecture. Physically-based approaches to rendering, where an accurate modeling of the physics of light scattering is at the heart of image synthesis, offer both visual realism and predictability. Now in a comprehensively updated new edition, this best-selling computer graphics textbook sets the standard for physically-based rendering in the industry and the field. Physically Based Rendering describes both the mathematical theory behind a modern photorealistic rendering system as well as its practical implementation. A method known as literate programming combines human-readable documentation and source code into a single reference that is specifically designed to aid comprehension. The book's leading-edge algorithms, software, and ideas—including new material on GPU ray tracing—equip the reader to design and employ a full-featured rendering system capable of creating stunning imagery. This essential text represents the future of real-time graphics. Detailed and rigorous but accessible approach guides readers all the way from theory to practical software implementationFourth edition features new chapter on GPU ray tracing essential for game developersThe premier reference for professionals learning about and working in the fieldWon its authors a 2014 Academy Award for Scientific and Technical Achievement Includes a companion site complete with source code Copyright PREFACE CHAPTER 01. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Literate Programming 1.1.1 Indexing and Cross-Referencing 1.2 Photorealistic Rendering and the Ray-Tracing Algorithm 1.2.1 Cameras and Film 1.2.2 Ray–Object Intersections 1.2.3 Light Distribution 1.2.4 Visibility 1.2.5 Light Scattering at Surfaces 1.2.6 Indirect Light Transport 1.2.7 Ray Propagation 1.3 pbrt: System Overview 1.3.1 Phases of Execution 1.3.2 pbrt’s main() Function 1.3.3 Integrator Interface 1.3.4 ImageTileIntegrator and the Main Rendering Loop 1.3.5 RayIntegrator Implementation 1.3.6 Random Walk Integrator 1.4 How to Proceed through This Book 1.4.1 The Exercises 1.4.2 Viewing the Images 1.4.3 The Online Edition 1.5 Using and Understanding the Code 1.5.1 Source Code Organization 1.5.2 Naming Conventions 1.5.3 Pointer or Reference? 1.5.4 Abstraction versus Efficiency 1.5.5 pstd 1.5.6 Allocators 1.5.7 Dynamic Dispatch 1.5.8 Code Optimization 1.5.9 Debugging and Logging 1.5.10 Parallelism and Thread Safety 1.5.11 Extending the System 1.5.12 Bugs 1.6 A Brief History of Physically Based Rendering 1.6.1 Research 1.6.2 Production Further Reading Exercise CHAPTER 02. MONTE CARLO INTEGRATION 2.1 Monte Carlo: Basics 2.1.1 Background and Probability Review 2.1.2 Expected Values 2.1.3 The Monte Carlo Estimator 2.1.4 Error in Monte Carlo Estimators 2.2 Improving Efficiency 2.2.1 Stratified Sampling 2.2.2 Importance Sampling 2.2.3 Multiple Importance Sampling 2.2.4 Russian Roulette 2.2.5 Splitting 2.3 Sampling Using the Inversion Method 2.3.1 Discrete Case 2.3.2 Continuous Case 2.4 Transforming between Distributions 2.4.1 Transformation in Multiple Dimensions 2.4.2 Sampling with Multidimensional Transformations Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 03. GEOMETRY AND TRANSFORMATIONS 3.1 Coordinate Systems 3.1.1 Coordinate System Handedness 3.2 n-Tuple Base Classes 3.3 Vectors 3.3.1 Normalization and Vector Length 3.3.2 Dot and Cross Product 3.3.3 Coordinate System from a Vector 3.4 Points 3.5 Normals 3.6 Rays 3.6.1 Ray Differentials 3.7 Bounding Boxes 3.8 Spherical Geometry 3.8.1 Solid Angles 3.8.2 Spherical Polygons 3.8.3 Spherical Parameterizations 3.8.4 Bounding Directions 3.9 Transformations 3.9.1 Homogeneous Coordinates 3.9.2 Transform Class Definition 3.9.3 Basic Operations 3.9.4 Translations 3.9.5 Scaling 3.9.6 x, y, and z Axis Rotations 3.9.7 Rotation around an Arbitrary Axis 3.9.8 Rotating One Vector to Another 3.9.9 The Look-at Transformation 3.10 Applying Transformations 3.10.1 Points 3.10.2 Vectors 3.10.3 Normals 3.10.4 Rays 3.10.5 Bounding Boxes 3.10.6 Composition of Transformations 3.10.7 Transformations and Coordinate System Handedness 3.10.8 Vector Frames 3.10.9 Animating Transformations 3.11 Interactions 3.11.1 Surface Interaction 3.11.2 Medium Interaction Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 04. RADIOMETRY, SPECTRA, AND COLOR 4.1 Radiometry 4.1.1 Basic Quantities 4.1.2 Incident and Exitant Radiance Functions 4.1.3 Radiometric Spectral Distributions 4.1.4 Luminance and Photometry 4.2 Working with Radiometric Integrals 4.2.1 Integrals over Projected Solid Angle 4.2.2 Integrals over Spherical Coordinates 4.2.3 Integrals over Area 4.3 Surface Reflection 4.3.1 The BRDF and the BTDF 4.3.2 The BSSRDF 4.4 Light Emission 4.4.1 Blackbody Emitters 4.4.2 Standard Illuminants 4.5 Representing Spectral Distributions 4.5.1 Spectrum Interface 4.5.2 General Spectral Distributions 4.5.3 Embedded Spectral Data 4.5.4 Sampled Spectral Distributions 4.6 Color 4.6.1 XYZ Color 4.6.2 RGB Color 4.6.3 RGB Color Spaces 4.6.4 Why Spectral Rendering? 4.6.5 Choosing the Number of Wavelength Samples 4.6.6 From RGB to Spectra Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 05. CAMERAS AND FILM 5.1 Camera Interface 5.1.1 Camera Coordinate Spaces 5.1.2 The CameraBase Class 5.2 Projective Camera Models 5.2.1 Orthographic Camera 5.2.2 Perspective Camera 5.2.3 The Thin Lens Model and Depth of Field 5.3 Spherical Camera 5.4 Film and Imaging 5.4.1 The Camera Measurement Equation 5.4.2 Modeling Sensor Response 5.4.3 Filtering Image Samples 5.4.4 The Film Interface 5.4.5 Common Film Functionality 5.4.6 RGBFilm 5.4.7 GBufferFilm Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 06. SHAPES 6.1 Basic Shape Interface 6.1.1 Bounding 6.1.2 Ray–Bounds Intersections 6.1.3 Intersection Tests 6.1.4 Intersection Coordinate Spaces 6.1.5 Sidedness 6.1.6 Area 6.1.7 Sampling 6.2 Spheres 6.2.1 Bounding 6.2.2 Intersection Tests 6.2.3 Surface Area 6.2.4 Sampling 6.3 Cylinders 6.3.1 Area and Bounding 6.3.2 Intersection Tests 6.3.3 Sampling 6.4 Disks 6.4.1 Area and Bounding 6.4.2 Intersection Tests 6.4.3 Sampling 6.5 Triangle Meshes 6.5.1 Mesh Representation and Storage 6.5.2 Triangle Class 6.5.3 Ray–Triangle Intersection 6.5.4 Sampling 6.6 Bilinear Patches 6.6.1 Intersection Tests 6.6.2 Sampling 6.7 Curves 6.7.1 Bounding Curves 6.7.2 Intersection Tests 6.8 Managing Rounding Error 6.8.1 Floating-Point Arithmetic 6.8.2 Conservative Ray–Bounds Intersections 6.8.3 Accurate Quadratic Discriminants 6.8.4 Robust Triangle Intersections 6.8.5 Bounding Intersection Point Error 6.8.6 Robust Spawned Ray Origins 6.8.7 Avoiding Intersections behind Ray Origins 6.8.8 Discussion Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 07. PRIMITIVES AND INTERSECTION ACCELERATION 7.1 Primitive Interface and Geometric Primitives 7.1.1 Geometric Primitives 7.1.2 Object Instancing and Primitives in Motion 7.2 Aggregates 7.3 Bounding Volume Hierarchies 7.3.1 BVH Construction 7.3.2 The Surface Area Heuristic 7.3.3 Linear Bounding Volume Hierarchies 7.3.4 Compact BVH for Traversal 7.3.5 Bounding and Intersection Tests Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 08. SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION 8.1 Sampling Theory 8.1.1 The Frequency Domain and the Fourier Transform 8.1.2 Ideal Sampling and Reconstruction 8.1.3 Aliasing 8.1.4 Understanding Pixels 8.1.5 Sampling and Aliasing in Rendering 8.1.6 Spectral Analysis of Sampling Patterns 8.2 Sampling and Integration 8.2.1 Fourier Analysis of Variance 8.2.2 Low Discrepancy and Quasi Monte Carlo 8.3 Sampling Interface 8.4 Independent Sampler 8.5 Stratified Sampler 8.6 Halton Sampler 8.6.1 Hammersley and Halton Points 8.6.2 Randomization via Scrambling 8.6.3 Halton Sampler Implementation 8.6.4 Evaluation 8.7 Sobol Samplers 8.7.1 Stratification over Elementary Intervals 8.7.2 Randomization and Scrambling 8.7.3 Sobol Sample Generation 8.7.4 Global Sobol Sampler 8.7.5 Padded Sobol Sampler 8.7.6 Blue Noise Sobol Sampler 8.7.7 Evaluation 8.8 Image Reconstruction 8.8.1 Filter Interface 8.8.2 FilterSampler 8.8.3 Box Filter 8.8.4 Triangle Filter 8.8.5 Gaussian Filter 8.8.6 Mitchell Filter 8.8.7 Windowed Sinc Filter Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 09. REFLECTION MODELS 9.1 BSDF Representation 9.1.1 Geometric Setting and Conventions 9.1.2 BxDF Interface 9.1.3 Hemispherical Reflectance 9.1.4 Delta Distributions in BSDFs 9.1.5 BSDFs 9.2 Diffuse Reflection 9.3 Specular Reflection and Transmission 9.3.1 Physical Principles 9.3.2 The Index of Refraction 9.3.3 The Law of Specular Reflection 9.3.4 Snell’s Law 9.3.5 The Fresnel Equations 9.3.6 The Fresnel Equations for Conductors 9.4 Conductor BRDF 9.5 Dielectric BSDF 9.5.1 Thin Dielectric BSDF 9.5.2 Non-Symmetric Scattering and Refraction 9.6 Roughness Using Microfacet Theory 9.6.1 The Microfacet Distribution 9.6.2 The Masking Function 9.6.3 The Masking-Shadowing Function 9.6.4 Sampling the Distribution of Visible Normals 9.6.5 The Torrance–Sparrow Model 9.7 Rough Dielectric BSDF 9.8 Measured BSDFs 9.8.1 Basic Data Structures 9.8.2 Evaluation 9.9 Scattering from Hair 9.9.1 Geometry 9.9.2 Scattering from Hair 9.9.3 Longitudinal Scattering 9.9.4 Absorption in Fibers 9.9.5 Azimuthal Scattering 9.9.6 Scattering Model Evaluation 9.9.7 Sampling 9.9.8 Hair Absorption Coefficients Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 10. TEXTURES AND MATERIALS 10.1 Texture Sampling and Antialiasing 10.1.1 Finding the Texture Sampling Rate 10.1.2 Ray Differentials at Medium Transitions 10.1.3 Ray Differentials for Specular Reflection and Transmission 10.1.4 Filtering Texture Functions 10.2 Texture Coordinate Generation 10.2.1 (u, v) Mapping 10.2.2 Spherical Mapping 10.2.3 Cylindrical Mapping 10.2.4 Planar Mapping 10.2.5 3D Mapping 10.3 Texture Interface and Basic Textures 10.3.1 Constant Texture 10.3.2 Scale Texture 10.3.3 Mix Textures 10.4 Image Texture 10.4.1 Texture Memory Management 10.4.2 Image Texture Evaluation 10.4.3 MIP Maps 10.4.4 Image Map Filtering 10.5 Material Interface and Implementations 10.5.1 Material Implementations 10.5.2 Finding the BSDF at a Surface 10.5.3 Normal Mapping 10.5.4 Bump Mapping Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 11. VOLUME SCATTERING 11.1 Volume Scattering Processes 11.1.1 Absorption 11.1.2 Emission 11.1.3 Out Scattering and Attenuation 11.1.4 In Scattering 11.2 Transmittance 11.2.1 Null Scattering 11.3 Phase Functions 11.3.1 The Henyey–Greenstein Phase Function 11.4 Media 11.4.1 Medium Interface 11.4.2 Homogeneous Medium 11.4.3 DDA Majorant Iterator 11.4.4 Uniform Grid Medium 11.4.5 RGB Grid Medium Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 12. LIGHT SOURCES 12.1 Light Interface 12.1.1 Photometric Light Specification 12.1.2 The LightBase Class 12.2 Point Lights 12.2.1 Spotlights 12.2.2 Texture Projection Lights 12.2.3 Goniophotometric Diagram Lights 12.3 Distant Lights 12.4 Area Lights 12.5 Infinite Area Lights 12.5.1 Uniform Infinite Lights 12.5.2 Image Infinite Lights 12.5.3 Portal Image Infinite Lights 12.6 Light Sampling 12.6.1 Uniform Light Sampling 12.6.2 Power Light Sampler 12.6.3 BVH Light Sampling Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 13. LIGHT TRANSPORT I: SURFACE REFLECTION 13.1 The Light Transport Equation 13.1.1 Basic Derivation 13.1.2 Analytic Solutions to the LTE 13.1.3 The Surface Form of the LTE 13.1.4 Integral over Paths 13.1.5 Delta Distributions in the Integrand 13.1.6 Partitioning the Integrand 13.2 Path Tracing 13.2.1 Overview 13.2.2 Path Sampling 13.2.3 Incremental Path Construction 13.3 A Simple Path Tracer 13.4 A Better Path Tracer 13.4.1 Path Regularization Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 14. LIGHT TRANSPORT II: VOLUME RENDERING 14.1 The Equation of Transfer 14.1.1 Null-Scattering Extension 14.1.2 Evaluating the Equation of Transfer 14.1.3 Sampling the Majorant Transmittance 14.1.4 Generalized Path Space 14.1.5 Evaluating the Volumetric Path Integral 14.2 Volume Scattering Integrators 14.2.1 A Simple Volumetric Integrator 14.2.2 Improving the Sampling Techniques 14.2.3 Improved Volumetric Integrator 14.3 Scattering from Layered Materials 14.3.1 The One-Dimensional Equation of Transfer 14.3.2 Layered BxDF 14.3.3 Coated Diffuse and Coated Conductor Materials Further Reading Exercises * CHAPTER 15. WAVEFRONT RENDERING ON GPUS 15.1 Mapping Path Tracing to the GPU 15.1.1 Basic GPU Architecture 15.1.2 Structuring Rendering Computation 15.1.3 System Overview 15.2 Implementation Foundations 15.2.1 Execution and Memory Space Specification 15.2.2 Launching Kernels on the GPU 15.2.3 Structure-of-Arrays Layout 15.2.4 Work Queues 15.3 Path Tracer Implementation 15.3.1 Work Launch 15.3.2 The Render() Method 15.3.3 Generating Camera Rays 15.3.4 Loop over Ray Depths 15.3.5 Sample Generation 15.3.6 Intersection Testing 15.3.7 Participating Media 15.3.8 Ray-Found Emission 15.3.9 Surface Scattering 15.3.10 Shadow Rays 15.3.11 Updating the Film Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 16. RETROSPECTIVE AND THE FUTURE 16.1 pbrt over the Years 16.2 Design Alternatives 16.2.1 Out-of-Core Rendering 16.2.2 Preshaded Micropolygon Grids 16.2.3 Packet Tracing 16.2.4 Interactive and Animation Rendering 16.2.5 Specialized Compilation 16.3 Emerging Topics 16.3.1 Inverse and Differentiable Rendering 16.3.2 Machine Learning and Rendering 16.4 The Future 16.5 Conclusion A SAMPLING ALGORITHMS B UTILITIES C PROCESSING THE SCENE DESCRIPTION REFERENCES INDEX OF FRAGMENTS INDEX OF CLASSES AND THEIR MEMBERS INDEX OF MISCELLANEOUS IDENTIFIERS SUBJECT INDEX COLOPHON A comprehensive update of the leading-edge computer graphics textbook that sets the standard for physically-based rendering in the industry and the field, with new material on GPU ray tracing. Photorealistic computer graphics are ubiquitous in todays world, widely used in movies and video games as well as product design and architecture. Physically-based approaches to rendering, where an accurate modeling of the physics of light scattering is at the heart of image synthesis, offer both visual realism and predictability. Now in a comprehensively updated new edition, this best-selling computer graphics textbook sets the standard for physically-based rendering in the industry and the field. Physically Based Rendering describes both the mathematical theory behind a modern photorealistic rendering system as well as its practical implementation. A method known as literate programming combines human-readable documentation and source code into a single reference that is specifically designed to aid comprehension. The books leading-edge algorithms, software, and ideasincluding new material on GPU ray tracingequip the reader to design and employ a full-featured rendering system capable of creating stunning imagery. This essential text represents the future of real-time graphics.