The European Union and the Kurdish Issue: The EU as a Rational and Normative Actor (United Nations University Series on Regionalism, 23)

This book focuses on the European Union as an actor involved in the transnational Kurdish issue covering Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria. It demonstrates that, instead of being simply a humanitarian actor in the issue, the EU has considered its bilateral interests with the four states in question as well as its extent of acceptance in approaching the Kurdish issue. It has combined its traditional humanitarian/normative consideration with its geopolitical interests in relation to strategies related to the four states. This book provides a unique perspective on the EU as an actor in the Kurdish issue and from a wider perspective, it provides interesting insights into the EU’s interactions with geopolitics, which has become the topic of a lively scholarly debate in recent years. The book is a resource for researchers and students studying the European Union as a global actor, and for governmental or non-governmental professionals dealing directly with, or having interest in, the EUand/or Kurdish affairs. Abstract Contents Abbreviations List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 The EU as an Actor in the Kurdish Issue 1.1.1 What Kind of Actor? 1.1.2 The Analytical Approach: The `EU as a Global Actor ́ Approach 1.1.3 Assessing the EU ́s Actorness: The Context Matters 1.2 The Broader Context: The EU ́s Approach to Geopolitics 1.3 The Central Question 1.3.1 How Has the European Union Performed as an Actor in the Kurdish Issues in Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria? 1.4 Case Design and Methodology 1.4.1 The Case Selection 1.4.2 The Case Design: An Embedded Single Case 1.4.2.1 The Four Units of Analysis 1.4.3 Methods of Data Collection and Data Analysis 1.4.3.1 The Primary Data Source: Semi-structured Elite Interviews 1.4.3.2 Structure of the Interviews 1.4.3.3 The Five Selected Interview Groups 1.4.3.4 Secondary Data Sources: Study and Review of Literature and Documents 1.5 Structure of This Book References Chapter 2: Studying the European Union ́s Actorness in the Kurdish Issue: An Analytical Model 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Terminology 2.1.1.1 EU Foreign Policy 2.1.1.2 EU Political Actors 2.2 Conceptualising Geopolitics in the EU ́s Foreign Policy 2.3 Rationales Behind a Collective EU Approach: Grounds for Common Interest 2.3.1 Grounds for Common EU Interest 2.4 The EU ́s Actorness in the Kurdish Issue: An Analytical Model 2.4.1 Interest 2.4.2 Acceptance 2.4.3 Performance and Impact 2.4.3.1 Performance 2.4.3.2 Impact 2.4.4 Integrating the Concepts into One Analytical Model 2.5 Conclusion References Chapter 3: The Kurdish Issue: A Transnational Political Conflict 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Geopolitics of the Kurdish Issue: Actors, Interests and Perceptions 3.2.1 The Principal Actors: The Kurds, the Four States, Influential Global Powers 3.2.2 The Kurdish Perspective 3.2.3 The Four States ́ Perspectives 3.2.4 The Global Powers ́ Perspective: The United States as an Example 3.2.5 Perception and Role of Secondary Actors 3.3 Conclusion References Chapter 4: The European Union and the Kurds in Turkey 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Common Interests 4.2.1 Grounds for Common Interests 4.2.1.1 Projecting the EU ́s Normative Power The Role of the Courts in Shaping the EU ́s Normative Rhetoric 4.2.1.2 Turkey ́s Geostrategic Importance and the Kurdish Factor The Kurdish Factor in EU-Turkey Relations The Kurdish Factor as Political Leverage 4.2.1.3 Member States ́ Connections with the Kurds in Turkey 4.2.2 Formulation of Common Interests 4.2.2.1 The EU ́s Approach to the Kurdish Issue: A Case of Minority Rights 4.2.3 Representation of Common Interests 4.2.3.1 The EU ́s Autonomy and Coherence Agreement on the Principles Incoherent Approach to the Principles 4.2.3.2 The EC ́s Central Role and Rhetoric 4.2.3.3 The EU ́s Hybrid Approach in the Post-negotiation Period The EU ́s Diplomatic Presence and Outreach to the Kurds 4.3 Acceptance of the EU 4.3.1 The EU ́s Prudent Engagement with the Kurds 4.3.1.1 Turkey Setting the Terms: The Terrorist Designation of the PKK 4.3.1.2 The `Kurdish Opening ́: Political Space Opportunities for the Kurds 4.3.2 The EU ́s Choice of Kurdish Partner: The HDP and Kurdish Civil Society 4.3.3 Turkey ́s Opposition to the EU ́s Interactions with the HDP 4.4 The EU ́s Performance and Impact 4.4.1 The EU ́s Performance 4.4.1.1 The Effect of the Accession Negotiations on the EU ́s Leverage 4.4.1.2 The EU Grappling to Maintain Its Leverage over Turkey 4.4.1.3 A Hybrid EU Approach: Combining Short-Term Transactions with a Long-Term Normative Agenda 4.4.1.4 The EU ́s Diplomatic Presence and Monitoring Role 4.4.2 The Impact of the EU ́s Actorness 4.4.2.1 Europeanisation and the Transformation of the Kurdish Issue 4.4.2.2 The Effects of Conditionality and Europeanisation on Turkey 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5: The European Union and the Kurds in Iraq 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Common Interests 5.2.1 Grounds for Common Interests 5.2.1.1 The Geostrategic Importance of Iraq Iraq and Iraqi Kurds in the Context of the EU ́s Geopolitical Interests 5.2.1.2 The Kurdish Factor Kurds as a Partner in Confronting the EU ́s Challenges in Its Neighbourhood The `Kurdish Oil ́ 5.2.1.3 Member States ́ Historical Connections with the Kurds in Iraq Eastern European States ́ Historical Parallels with the Kurds 5.2.2 Formulation of Common Interests 5.2.2.1 The EU ́s Iraq Policy and the Kurds: The Historical Development Internal Discord on the War, Coherence on Post-war Engagement Toward a Long-Term Contractual Relationship 5.2.2.2 The EU ́s Iraq Agenda and KRI: The Priorities Humanitarian Assistance and Reconstruction Development Cooperation Human Rights and Civil Society Security and Political Cooperation Energy, Trade and Investment 5.2.3 Representation of Common Interests 5.2.3.1 The EU ́s Iraq Policy: A Coherent, Comprehensive Engagement 5.2.3.2 Evolution of the EU ́s Engagement with the Kurds: From Neglect to Engagement Finding Balance Political Engagement as a Tool to Facilitate Trade and Investment Other Rational and Moral Arguments for Engagement 5.2.3.3 The Boundaries of the EU ́s Political Support for the Kurds 5.3 Acceptance of the EU 5.3.1 The EU ́s Engagement: Generating Leverage Through a Soft But Comprehensive Approach 5.3.1.1 Acting as an Honest Broker 5.3.1.2 Other Actors with Influence in KRI 5.3.2 The EU ́s Choice of Partner: KRI as a Constitutionally Recognised Entity 5.4 The EU ́s Performance and Impact 5.4.1 The EU ́s Performance 5.4.1.1 High Amount of Goodwill Toward the EU 5.4.1.2 Translating Goodwill into Political Leverage: The EU `Punching Below Its Weight ́ A Mismatch Between EU Rhetoric and the EU ́s Political and Diplomatic Involvement 5.4.2 The Impact of the EU ́s Actorness 5.4.2.1 Insufficient Actorness to Leave a Long-Term Footprint 5.5 Conclusion References Chapter 6: The European Union and the Kurds in Syria 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Common Interests 6.2.1 Grounds for Common Interests 6.2.1.1 The Geostrategic Importance of Syria Syria as an Ad Hoc Challenge: Mitigating the Fallout from the Crisis 6.2.1.2 The Kurdish Factor The Emergence of the Kurds as a Powerful Entity The Geopolitical Significance of the Rojava Region 6.2.1.3 Member States ́ (Historical) Connections with the Kurds 6.2.2 Formulation of Common Interests 6.2.2.1 Preserving the Territorial Integrity of Syria, Without Al-Assad 6.2.2.2 Support for the Kurds Confined to the War Against ISIS 6.2.3 Representation of Common Interests 6.2.3.1 A Shaky EU Relationship with Syria 6.2.3.2 Disengagement with the Kurds 6.2.3.3 France Playing on Its Own 6.3 Acceptance of the EU 6.3.1 The EU in Syria: A Self-Imposed Limited Engagement 6.3.2 Challenges to Engaging the Kurds 6.3.2.1 The Terrorist Designation of the Kurdish PYD by Turkey 6.4 Performance and Impact 6.4.1 The EU ́s Performance in Syria: A Key Payer, Not a Key Player 6.4.2 A Too Limited Actorness to Leave a Long-Term Impact 6.5 Conclusion References Chapter 7: The European Union and the Kurds in Iran 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Common Interests 7.2.1 Grounds for Common Interests 7.2.1.1 The EU ́s Normative and Geostrategic Interests 7.2.1.2 The Kurdish Factor 7.2.1.3 Member States ́ (Historical) Connections with the Kurds in Iran 7.2.2 Formulation of Common Interests 7.2.2.1 Striking a Balance Between Normative and Material Interests 7.2.2.2 The Kurds Addressed in the Context of Human and Minority Rights 7.2.3 Representation of Common Interests 7.2.3.1 The Kurds Largely Ignored by the EU 7.3 Acceptance of the EU in the Kurdish Issue 7.3.1 A Non-existent EU Approach to the Kurdish Issue 7.3.2 The EU ́s Non-existent Kurdish Interlocutor 7.3.2.1 Fractured Kurdish Representation 7.4 Performance and Impact 7.4.1 The EU ́s Lack of Leverage over Iran and the Expectation Gap 7.4.2 The EU Not a Transformative Actor (in the Kurdish Issue) in Iran 7.5 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Conclusions 8.1 Case Findings 8.1.1 The European Union ́s Actorness in Relation to the Kurdish Issue 8.1.1.1 The EU as a Normative Civilian Actor in Addressing the Kurdish Issue 8.1.1.2 The EU as a Rational Calculative Actor in Approaching the Kurds 8.1.2 The EU ́s Actorness in the Kurdish Issue in a Broader Geopolitical Context 8.1.3 The EU ́s Performance and the Long-Term Impact of Its Actorness 8.1.3.1 Performance: The EU `Punching Below Its Weight ́ 8.1.3.2 Impact: The Combination of Economic Power and Normative Objectives in Leaving a Long-Term EU Footprint 8.2 Review and Recommendations for Further Research 8.2.1 Review of the Analytical Model 8.2.2 Adopting `Common Interests ́ in EU Actorness Studies 8.2.3 Recommendations for EU-Kurdish Relations as a Research Subject Appendix A: Number of EU Companies Registered in KRI in the Period 2000-2020 Appendix B: EU Member States ́ Representation Offices in Erbil, Capital of the Kurdistan Region-Iraq Appendix C: Military Support from EU Member States to the Kurdistan Region ́s Peshmerga Forces in the Framework of the War Agai...