The European Court Of Human Rights In The Post-cold War Era: Universality In Transition (routledge Research In Human Rights Law)

The European Court of Human Rights in the Post-Cold War Era: Universality in Transition examines transitional justice from the perspective of its impact on the universality of human rights, taking the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights as its detailed case study. The problem is twofold: there are questions about differences in human rights standards between transitional and non-transitional situations, and about differences between transitions. The European Court has been a vital part of European democratic consolidation and integration for over half a century, setting meaningful standards and offering legal remedies to the individually repressed, the politically vulnerable, and the socially excluded. After their emancipation from Soviet influence in the 1990s, and with membership of the European Union in mind for many, the new democracies of Central and Eastern Europe flocked to the Convention system. The voluminous jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights can now give us some clear information about how an international human rights law regime can interact with transitional justice. The jurisprudence is divided between those cases concerning the human rights implications of explicitly transitional policies (such as lustration), and those that involve impacts upon specific democratic rights during the transition. The book presents a close examination of claims by states that transitional policies and priorities require a level of deference from the Strasbourg institutions. The book proposes that states’ claims for leeway from international human rights supervisory mechanisms during times of transition can be characterised not as arguments for cultural relativism, but for ‘transitional relativism’. The European Court of Human Rights in the Post-Cold War Era Universality in Transition 6 Copyright 7 Contents 10 Acknowledgements 16 Table of cases 18 Table of legislation 24 Introduction 26 Part I Concepts 30 1 The Council of Europe, transitional justice and the universality of human rights 32 1.1 The Council of Europe 32 1.1.1 The Council of Europe, human rights and democracy 34 1.1.2 The Genesis of the European Convention on Human Rights 36 1.1.3 Enlargement of the Council of Europe 38 1.1.4 Implications of enlargement 39 1.2 Transitional justice 43 1.2.1 The Council of Europe and dismantling communism 43 1.2.2 Transitional justice 46 1.2.3 Transitional justice in the Council of Europe 49 1.2.4 Transitional justice and human rights: the odd couple 50 1.3 The universality of human rights and transitional relativism 55 1.3.1 The universality debate 55 1.3.2 The universality debate at the ECHR: the margin of appreciation 57 1.3.3 Transitional justice and universality 61 1.4 Conclusion 63 Part II Cases 66 Section A The ECHR and transitional policies 68 A.1 Introduction 68 2 Transitional criminal justice: prosecution and amnesty 70 2.1 Introduction 70 2.2 Successor trials and retroactivity 73 2.2.1 Setting the tone: the Berlin Wall cases 76 2.3 Dealing with the communist past 82 2.3.1 The developing orthodoxy 82 2.3.2 Korbely v Hungary 85 2.4 Dealing with the pre-Communist past: the Kononov case and ‘historical truth’ 88 2.5 Conclusion 92 3 Openness, secrecy and historical justice 95 3.1 Introduction 95 3.2 The right to truth 95 3.3 PACE Resolution 1096 and historical justice 100 3.4 The Convention as a foundation for access to secret information 101 3.4.1 Access to secret information during lustration proceedings 103 3.4.2 Openness and historical research 106 3.5 Historical justice, memorialisation and matters of ‘purely historical fact’ 108 3.6 Conclusion 113 4 Reparatory justice and the restitution of property 116 4.1 Introduction 116 4.1.1 International human rights law as a basis for reparatory justice 117 4.1.2 PACE and reparatory justice 122 4.2 The European Convention as a foundation for restitution claims 124 4.2.1 Temporal scope of the Convention 124 4.2.2 Material scope of the Convention 126 4.3 The European Convention and the supervision of restitution schemes 128 4.3.1 The ‘legitimacy’ of restitution schemes 128 4.3.2 The scope of restitution policies 132 4.3.3 Proportionality and a ‘fair balance’: reparatory justice for victims of communism 136 4.3.4 Proportionality and a ‘fair balance’: effecting constitutional and economic reforms 138 4.4 Procedural justice and restitution 144 4.4.1 Positive obligations 144 4.4.2 The applicability of Article 6 ECHR to restitution proceedings 146 4.4.3 The effect of Article 6 ECHR on restitution proceedings 146 4.4.4 Reparatory justice and ‘pilot judgments’ 149 4.5 Conclusion 150 5 Lustration 152 5.1 Introduction 152 5.1.1 The European Court’s early approach to lustration: pre-PACE Resolution 1096 153 5.1.2 PACE Resolution 1096 and lustration 156 5.2 The European Convention and the ‘legitimacy’ of lustration processes 158 5.3 Proportionality in the lustration process 161 5.4 Procedural justice and lustration 164 5.4.1 The applicability of Article 6 ECHR to lustration processes 164 5.4.2 The effect of Article 6 on lustration processes 166 5.5 Conclusion 168 Section B Democratic rights in the transitional context 170 B.1 Introduction 170 B.2 The centrality of democracy in the ECHR 172 B.3 Democratic rights in the European Convention 175 B.4 Article 17 and ‘gatekeepers’ of the democratic rights 176 6 Freedom of expression 178 6.1 Introduction 178 6.1.1 The media and political speech: a recipe for reservations? 178 6.2 Freedom of expression: ‘transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State 180 6.3 Freedom of expression: ‘echoes’ of totalitarianism and systemic problems 183 6.3.1 Press intimidation and censorship 183 6.3.2 Political expression about the transition itself 189 6.3.3 ‘Wild’ lustration and the relationship between Articles 8 and 10 ECHR 192 6.4 Conclusion 198 7 Freedom of assembly and (religious) association 199 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Freedom of peaceful assembly 200 7.2.1 Freedom of assembly: ‘transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State 200 7.2.1.1 Clarifying ‘peaceful’ assembly in transition 203 7.2.2 Freedom of assembly: ‘echoes’ of totalitarianism and systemic problems 206 7.2.2.1 A culture of popular protest 206 7.2.2.2 A culture of popular protest and content-based restrictions 206 7.2.2.3 Notification regimes and spontaneous assemblies 208 7.2.2.4 The quality of domestic law and freedom of peaceful assembly 211 7.2.2.5 Procedural justice and freedom of peaceful assembly 212 7.2.2.6 Freedom of peaceful assembly and emergency situations 214 7.2.3 Conclusions on freedom of assembly 216 7.3 Freedom of association 217 7.3.1 ‘Transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State 217 7.3.1.1 Communist parties, extremism and separatism: ‘self-defending’ democracy 217 7.3.1.1.1 The ‘classic’ law: the German post-war Basic Law and ‘wehrhafte Demokratie’ 217 7.3.1.1.2 Building on the ‘classic’ law: events in Turkey 220 7.3.1.1.3 The post-Cold War era 222 7.3.1.1.4 Self-defending democracy: ethnic and national tensions in transition 227 7.3.1.1.4.1 Macedonians in Bulgaria 227 7.3.1.1.4.2 Bulgarians in Macedonia 231 7.3.1.1.5 Reflections on communist parties, extremism and separatism: ‘self-defending’ democracy 233 7.3.1.2 Decontaminating the state apparatus 233 7.3.1.3 Religion as a stabilising factor 236 7.4 Freedom of association: ‘echoes’ of totalitarianism and systemic problems 239 7.4.1 Conclusions on freedom of association 241 8 Free elections 243 8.1 Introduction 243 8.2 ‘Transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State 244 8.2.1 The legacy of Ždanoka: ‘self-consolidating’ democracies, transitional relativism and the question of timing 248 8.3 Free elections: ‘echoes’ of totalitarianism and systemic problems 252 8.3.1 Loyalty and fitness to stand for election 253 8.3.2 Ethnicity and nationality-based restrictions: the question of timing revisited 255 8.4 Conclusion 259 Part III Conclusions 262 9 Universality in transition 264 9.1 Does the European Court of Human Rights ‘do’ transitional justice? 264 9.1.1 The first level of interaction 264 9.1.2 The second level of interaction 265 9.1.2.1 Collaborators and communists 266 9.1.2.2 The use and abuse of legitimate aims 266 9.1.2.3 Precision of the restrictive measure/proximity to the transition 267 9.1.2.4 Self-consolidating democracy 268 9.1.3 Fashioning a transitional jurisprudence 269 9.1.4 Applying the transitional jurisprudence 272 9.2 Universality in transition: implications of transitional relativism 276 Index 279 The European Court of Human Rights in the Post-Cold War Era Universality in Transition ......Page 6 Copyright......Page 7 Contents......Page 10 Acknowledgements......Page 16 Table of cases......Page 18 Table of legislation......Page 24 Introduction......Page 26 Part I Concepts......Page 30 1.1 The Council of Europe......Page 32 1.1.1 The Council of Europe, human rights and democracy......Page 34 1.1.2 The Genesis of the European Convention on Human Rights......Page 36 1.1.3 Enlargement of the Council of Europe......Page 38 1.1.4 Implications of enlargement......Page 39 1.2.1 The Council of Europe and dismantling communism......Page 43 1.2.2 Transitional justice......Page 46 1.2.3 Transitional justice in the Council of Europe......Page 49 1.2.4 Transitional justice and human rights: the odd couple......Page 50 1.3.1 The universality debate......Page 55 1.3.2 The universality debate at the ECHR: the margin of appreciation......Page 57 1.3.3 Transitional justice and universality......Page 61 1.4 Conclusion......Page 63 Part II Cases......Page 66 A.1 Introduction......Page 68 2.1 Introduction......Page 70 2.2 Successor trials and retroactivity......Page 73 2.2.1 Setting the tone: the Berlin Wall cases......Page 76 2.3.1 The developing orthodoxy......Page 82 2.3.2 Korbely v Hungary......Page 85 2.4 Dealing with the pre-Communist past: the Kononov case and ‘historical truth’......Page 88 2.5 Conclusion......Page 92 3.2 The right to truth......Page 95 3.3 PACE Resolution 1096 and historical justice......Page 100 3.4 The Convention as a foundation for access to secret information......Page 101 3.4.1 Access to secret information during lustration proceedings......Page 103 3.4.2 Openness and historical research......Page 106 3.5 Historical justice, memorialisation and matters of ‘purely historical fact’......Page 108 3.6 Conclusion......Page 113 4.1 Introduction......Page 116 4.1.1 International human rights law as a basis for reparatory justice......Page 117 4.1.2 PACE and reparatory justice......Page 122 4.2.1 Temporal scope of the Convention......Page 124 4.2.2 Material scope of the Convention......Page 126 4.3.1 The ‘legitimacy’ of restitution schemes......Page 128 4.3.2 The scope of restitution policies......Page 132 4.3.3 Proportionality and a ‘fair balance’: reparatory justice for victims of communism......Page 136 4.3.4 Proportionality and a ‘fair balance’: effecting constitutional and economic reforms......Page 138 4.4.1 Positive obligations......Page 144 4.4.3 The effect of Article 6 ECHR on restitution proceedings......Page 146 4.4.4 Reparatory justice and ‘pilot judgments’......Page 149 4.5 Conclusion......Page 150 5.1 Introduction......Page 152 5.1.1 The European Court’s early approach to lustration: pre-PACE Resolution 1096......Page 153 5.1.2 PACE Resolution 1096 and lustration......Page 156 5.2 The European Convention and the ‘legitimacy’ of lustration processes......Page 158 5.3 Proportionality in the lustration process......Page 161 5.4.1 The applicability of Article 6 ECHR to lustration processes......Page 164 5.4.2 The effect of Article 6 on lustration processes......Page 166 5.5 Conclusion......Page 168 B.1 Introduction......Page 170 B.2 The centrality of democracy in the ECHR......Page 172 B.3 Democratic rights in the European Convention......Page 175 B.4 Article 17 and ‘gatekeepers’ of the democratic rights......Page 176 6.1.1 The media and political speech: a recipe for reservations?......Page 178 6.2 Freedom of expression: ‘transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State......Page 180 6.3.1 Press intimidation and censorship......Page 183 6.3.2 Political expression about the transition itself......Page 189 6.3.3 ‘Wild’ lustration and the relationship between Articles 8 and 10 ECHR......Page 192 6.4 Conclusion......Page 198 7.1 Introduction......Page 199 7.2.1 Freedom of assembly: ‘transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State......Page 200 7.2.1.1 Clarifying ‘peaceful’ assembly in transition......Page 203 7.2.2.2 A culture of popular protest and content-based restrictions......Page 206 7.2.2.3 Notification regimes and spontaneous assemblies......Page 208 7.2.2.4 The quality of domestic law and freedom of peaceful assembly......Page 211 7.2.2.5 Procedural justice and freedom of peaceful assembly......Page 212 7.2.2.6 Freedom of peaceful assembly and emergency situations......Page 214 7.2.3 Conclusions on freedom of assembly......Page 216 7.3.1.1.1 The ‘classic’ law: the German post-war Basic Law and ‘wehrhafte Demokratie’......Page 217 7.3.1.1.2 Building on the ‘classic’ law: events in Turkey......Page 220 7.3.1.1.3 The post-Cold War era......Page 222 7.3.1.1.4.1 Macedonians in Bulgaria......Page 227 7.3.1.1.4.2 Bulgarians in Macedonia......Page 231 7.3.1.2 Decontaminating the state apparatus......Page 233 7.3.1.3 Religion as a stabilising factor......Page 236 7.4 Freedom of association: ‘echoes’ of totalitarianism and systemic problems......Page 239 7.4.1 Conclusions on freedom of association......Page 241 8.1 Introduction......Page 243 8.2 ‘Transitional’ arguments by the Respondent State......Page 244 8.2.1 The legacy of Ždanoka: ‘self-consolidating’ democracies, transitional relativism and the question of timing......Page 248 8.3 Free elections: ‘echoes’ of totalitarianism and systemic problems......Page 252 8.3.1 Loyalty and fitness to stand for election......Page 253 8.3.2 Ethnicity and nationality-based restrictions: the question of timing revisited......Page 255 8.4 Conclusion......Page 259 Part III Conclusions......Page 262 9.1.1 The first level of interaction......Page 264 9.1.2 The second level of interaction......Page 265 9.1.2.2 The use and abuse of legitimate aims......Page 266 9.1.2.3 Precision of the restrictive measure/proximity to the transition......Page 267 9.1.2.4 Self-consolidating democracy......Page 268 9.1.3 Fashioning a transitional jurisprudence......Page 269 9.1.4 Applying the transitional jurisprudence......Page 272 9.2 Universality in transition: implications of transitional relativism......Page 276 Index......Page 279 The European Court Of Human Rights Has Been A Vital Part Of European Democratic Consolidation And Integration For Over Half A Century, Setting Meaningful Standards And Offering Legal Remedies To The Individually Repressed, The Politically Vulnerable, And The Socially Excluded. After Their Emancipation From Soviet Influence In The 1990s, And With Membership Of The European Union In Mind For Many, The New Democracies Of Central And Eastern Europe Flocked To The Convention System. However, Now The Gold Rush Is Over, The Court's Position In The New Europe Is Under Threat. Its Ability To Decide Cases Promptly Is Almost Fatally Compromised, And The Reform Of Its Institutional Architecture Is Effectively Blocked By Russia. The Time Is Right To Take Stock, To Benefit From Hindsight, And To Consider How The Court Can Respond To The Situation. This Book Examines The Case Law Of The European Court Of Human Rights With Particular Reference To Democratic Transitions In Europe And The Consequent Enlargement Of The European Convention System. Focusing Firmly On The Substantive Jurisprudence Of The Court, The Book Analyses How It Has Responded To The Difficult And Distinct Circumstances Presented By The New Contracting Parties. Faced With Different Stages Of, And Commitments To, Democratic Transition, How Has The Court Reacted To Such Diversity Whilst Maintaining The Universality Of Human Rights, And How Is This Reflected In Its Judgments? The Book Tackles This Question By Matching Rigorous Doctrinal Analysis Of The Case Law With New Developments In Critical Thinking. The Cases Are Viewed Through The Prism Of Jurisprudence And Political Philosophy, With Links Made To European Political Integration And Other International Human Rights Systems. The Book Offers An Original Explanation Of The Court's Predicament By Drawing Upon Thick And Thin Notions Of Morality And Tying This To Notions Of Essential Contestability.-- This Book Examines The Case Law Of The European Court Of Human Rights With Particular Reference To Democratic Transitions In Europe And The Consequent Enlargement Of The European Convention System. Focusing Firmly On The Substantive Jurisprudence Of The Court, The Book Analyses How It Has Responded To The Difficult And Distinct Circumstances Presented By The New Contracting Parties. Faced With Different Stages Of, And Commitments To, Democratic Transition, How Has The Court Reacted To Such Diversity Whilst Maintaining The Universality Of Human Rights - And How Is This Reflected In Its Judgments? The Book Tackles This Question By Matching Rigorous Doctrinal Analysis Of The Case Law With New Developments In Critical Thinking. The Cases Are Viewed Through The Prism Of Jurisprudence And Political Philosophy, With Links Made To European Political Integration And Other International Human Rights Systems. The Book Offers An Original Explanation Of The Court's Predicament By Drawing Upon Thick And Thin Notions Of Morality And Tying This To Notions Of Essential Contestability. This Book Will Be Of Particular Interest To Students And Scholars Of Eu Law And Human Rights-- The Council Of Europe, Transitional Justice And The Universality Of Human Rights -- Transitional Criminal Justice : Prosecution And Amnesty -- Openness, Secrecy And Historical Justice -- Reparatory Justice And The Restitution Of Property -- Lustration -- Freedom Of Expression -- Freedom Of Assembly And (religious) Association -- Free Elections -- Universality In Transition. James A. Sweeney. Paperback Edition Released In 2014. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. "This book examines the case law of the European Court of Human Rights with particular reference to democratic transitions in Europe and the consequent enlargement of the European Convention system. Focusing firmly on the substantive jurisprudence of the court, the book analyses how it has responded to the difficult and distinct circumstances presented by the new contracting parties. Faced with different stages of, and commitments to, democratic transition, how has the court reacted to such diversity whilst maintaining the universality of human rights - and how is this reflected in its judgments? The book tackles this question by matching rigorous doctrinal analysis of the case law with new developments in critical thinking. The cases are viewed through the prism of jurisprudence and political philosophy, with links made to European political integration and other international human rights systems. The book offers an original explanation of the court's predicament by drawing upon "thick" and "thin" notions of morality and tying this to notions of essential contestability. This book will be of particular interest to students and scholars of EU law and human rights"-- Provided by publisher