The Environmental Impact of Cities : Death by Democracy and Capitalism

The Environmental Impact of Cities assesses the environmental impact that comes from cities and their inhabitants, demonstrating that our current political and economic systems are not environmentally sustainable because they are designed for endless growth in a system which is finite. It is already well documented that political, economic and social forces are capable of shaping cities and their expansion, retraction, gentrification, re-population, industrialisation or de-industrialisation. However, the links between these political and economic forces and the environmental impact they have on urban areas have yet to be numerically presented. As a result, it is not clear how our cities are affecting the environment, meaning it is currently impossible to relate their economic, political and social systems to their environmental performance. This book examines a broad selection of cities covering a wide range of political systems, geography, cultural backgrounds and population size. The environmental impact of the selected cities is calculated using both ecological footprint and carbon emissions, two of the most extensively available indices for measuring environmental impact. The results are then considered in terms of political, economic and social factors to ascertain the degree to which these factors are helping or hindering the reduction of the environmental impact of humans. This book will be of great interest to students and scholars of sustainability, urban planning, urban design, environmental sciences, geography and sociology. The Environmental Impact of Cities assesses the environmental impact that comes from cities and their inhabitants, demonstrating that our current political and economic systems are not environmentally sustainable because they are designed for endless gro Cover 1 Half Title 2 Series Information 3 Title Page 4 Copyright Page 5 Table of Contents 6 Figures 8 Tables 9 Acknowledgements 14 Preface 16 Part 1 The Impact of Cities 18 1 The Cities 20 1.1 Introduction 20 1.2 The Cities and Their History 21 1.3 Population 24 1.4 Climate 27 1.5 Governance 28 1.6 The Economy and Well-Being 32 1.7 The Cities and the Environment 34 References 36 2 Calculating the Ecological Footprint 40 2.1 Introduction 40 2.2 EF Calculation Method 40 2.3 CO 2 Emissions Calculations 42 References 43 3 Food 44 3.1 Problems With Food Data 44 3.2 How to Measure the Environmental Impact of the Food That Really Matters 46 3.3 Methodology and Results 48 3.4 Discussion 54 References 56 4 Energy 60 4.1 Introduction 60 4.2 Measuring Energy Consumption 61 4.3 Energy and Climate Change 62 4.4 Renewables and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 69 4.5 Energy Use in the Cities 70 4.5.1 Ahmedabad 71 4.5.2 Auckland 71 4.5.3 Copenhagen 72 4.5.4 Havana 73 4.5.5 Nairobi 73 4.5.6 Pyongyang 73 4.5.7 São Paulo 73 4.5.8 Energy Profile Comparison of the Selected Cities 74 References 79 5 Transport 83 5.1 The Cities and Transport 83 5.2 Travel Modes 84 5.3 Travel Distances 88 5.3.1 The Relationship Between Commuting and Total Travel 89 5.4 Introduction to Transport in Selected Cities 92 5.5 Transport in Pyongyang 92 5.5.1 Pyongyang’s Travel Modes 92 5.5.2 Estimating Travel Distance 93 5.5.3 Estimating Energy Consumption 93 5.5.3.1 Metro 93 5.5.3.2 Trams 93 5.5.3.3 Trolleybuses 94 5.5.3.4 Bicycles 94 5.5.4 Carbon Emissions 94 5.5.5 What If People in Pyongyang Drove to Work? 95 5.6 Transport in Havana 96 5.6.1 Motor Vehicles in Havana 96 5.6.2 Havana Public Transport 97 5.6.2.1 Buses 97 5.6.2.2 Railways 98 5.6.2.3 Collective Taxis 98 5.6.3 Going to Work in Havana 99 5.6.4 What Mode? 99 5.6.5 Emissions of Different Transport Modes 101 5.6.6 Havana’s Transport Emissions 102 5.7 Transport in Beijing 103 5.7.1 How Do People Travel to Work in Modern Beijing? 104 5.7.2 Public Transport in Beijing 104 5.7.2.1 The Beijing Subway 104 5.7.2.2 Buses 105 5.7.2.3 Bicycles 105 5.7.3 The Journey to Work 106 5.7.4 Commuting Distance and Emissions 106 5.7.5 The Effect of Electric Cars in Beijing 107 5.7 Transport in New York 109 5.7.1 Commuters in New York 109 5.7.2 New York Modes of Transport 111 5.7.2.1 Private Car, Truck and Van 111 5.7.2.2 Buses 111 5.7.2.3 The Subway 111 5.7.2.4 Suburban Trains 111 5.7.2.5 Ferries 112 5.7.3 The Journey to Work in New York 112 5.8 Last Words 113 References 113 6 Consumer Goods 120 6.1 Introduction 120 6.2 Household Spending Power 121 6.3 New York 123 6.4 Copenhagen 124 6.5 Singapore 125 6.6 Pyongyang 126 6.7 Nairobi 129 6.8 Ahmedabad 131 6.9 Cairo 132 6.10 EF of Consumer Goods for the Seven Cities 133 References 134 7 The Built Environment 139 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Ancient Cities 141 7.2.1 Beijing 141 7.2.2 Embodied Energy of Beijing Buildings and Infrastructure Within the Fifth Ring Road 145 7.3 Medieval Cities 148 7.3.1 Amsterdam 149 7.3.1 Embodied Energy in Built Amsterdam 151 7.3.2 Ahmedabad 152 7.3.3 Singapore 155 7.4 Colonial Cities 158 7.4.1 Jakarta 158 7.5 Comparison and Discussion 162 References 163 8 Urban Policies 170 8.1 Introduction 170 8.2 Methodology 171 8.2.1 Policies 171 8.2.3 Collaboration 173 8.2.4 Government Structure 174 8.2.5 Political Will 175 8.3 Results 179 8.3.1 Correlations 180 8.3.2 Correlation Between PI and DI 182 8.3.3 Correlation of PI and HDI 182 8.3.4 Correlation Between PI and EF 182 8.3.5 Correlation Between PI and CO 2 183 8.3.6 Correlation Between PI and Income Per Capita 183 8.4 Discussion 183 Note 185 References 185 Part 2 Influences On Living in Cities 188 9 Environmental Death By Democracy 190 9.1 Introduction 190 9.2 Why Are Democracies Not Working to Stop Our Environmental Catastrophe? 191 9.3 Assessing the Relationship Between Democracies and the Environment 192 8.4 The Power of the Majority, the Power of Voting 194 8.5 Will Democracies’ Pursuit of Progress Lead to Environmental Sustainability? 203 8.6 Discussion and Conclusion 204 Note 205 References 206 10 Capitalism 211 10.1 Introduction 211 10.2 What Is Capitalism? 211 10.3 Capitalism, Growth and the Environment 213 10.4 The Role of Growth 215 10.5 Capitalism and Cities 218 10.5.1 Wealth and Cities 220 Urban Infrastructure 221 Real Estate 221 Consumer Goods and Services 221 Agriculture Supply Chain 221 References 222 11 Population—the Elephant in the Room 224 11.1 Introduction 224 11.2 The Growth of Cities 225 11.2.1 Homelessness and Slums 225 11.3 Where Are National Populations Growing? 230 11.4 Some Impacts of Burgeoning Urban Populations 233 11.5 The Future of Homo Sapiens 234 References 234 12 The Internet 239 12.1 Background 239 12.2 Social Media 240 References 244 13 Icons in the Cities 246 13.1 Introduction 246 13.1.1 Architecture and the Cultural Landscape 247 13.2 Office Buildings as New Icons 248 13.3 The Bilbao Effect 249 13.4 The Impact of Tourism 250 13.5 Conclusion 252 Note 253 References 254 14 Pandemic 256 14.1 COVID-19 and this Book 256 14.2 The Effect of COVID-19 256 14.3 Climate Change and Pandemics 257 14.4 Large-Scale Pandemics and CO 2 Reduction 261 14.5 Conclusion 267 References 267 15 Living in Cities 274 15.1 Cities and Growth 274 15.2 Voting for a New City Model 275 15.3 What a New City Model Might Be 275 15.4 How to Get There From Here—A to B Or A to C? 276 References 276 Index 277 ecological,footprint;,Cities;,Environment,and,sustainability;,Geography;,Environmental,sciences;,Urban,studies;,Urban,planning;,Carbon,emissions;,Climate,change ecological footprint,Cities,Environment and sustainability,Geography,Environmental sciences,Urban studies,Urban planning,Carbon emissions,Climate change "The Environmental Impact of Cities assesses the environmental impact that comes from cities and their inhabitants, demonstrating that our current political and economic systems are not environmentally sustainable because they are designed for endless growth in a system which is finite. It is already well documented that political, economic and social forces are capable of shaping cities and their expansion, retraction, gentrification, re-population, industrialization or de-industrialization. However, the links between these political and economic forces and the environmental impact they have on urban areas have yet to be numerically presented. As a result, it is not clear how our cities are affecting the environment, meaning it is currently impossible to relate their economic, political and social systems to their environmental performance. This book examines a broad selection of cities covering a wide range of political systems, geography, cultural backgrounds and population size. The environmental impact of the selected cities is calculated using both Ecological Footprint and carbon emissions, two of the most extensively available indices for measuring environmental impact. The results are then considered in terms of political, economic and social factors to ascertain the degree to which these factors are helping or hindering the reduction of the environmental impact of humans. This book will be of great interest to students and scholars of sustainability, urban planning, urban design, environmental sciences, geography and sociology"-- Provided by publisher This book assesses the environmental impact that comes from cities and their inhabitants, demonstrating that our current systems are not environmentally sustainable. It will be of great interest to students and scholars of sustainability, urban planning, urban design, environmental sciences, geography and sociology.