The duplicity theory of vision: from Newton to the present

The duplicity theory of vision concerns the comparisons (both differences and similarities) and interaction between the cone and rod systems in the visual pathways, with the assumption that the cone system is active during daylight vision and the rod system functions in low light (night time). Research on this aspect of vision dates back to the 17th century and the work of Newton, and is still ongoing today. This book describes the origin and development of this fundamental theory within vision research - whilst also examining the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic colour theory, and the opponent colour theory of Hering - and presents evidence and ideas in light of modern conceptions of the theory. Written for academic researchers and graduate students, the book brings back knowledge of the tradition of duplicity theory, inspiring questions related to anatomy, comparative biology, molecular biology, photochemistry, physiology, genetics, phylogenetics and psychophysics. Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Dedication......Page 7 Contents......Page 9 Acknowledgements......Page 15 1.1 Roots of the duplicity theory of vision: Ancient Greeks......Page 17 1.2 Further development of the duplicity theory......Page 19 Part I The development of the basic ideas of the duplicity theory from Newton to G. E. Müller......Page 22 2.1 Newtons universal colour theory......Page 23 2.2 An alternative to Newtons theories of light and colour......Page 24 2.3 Phototransduction in the retina and signal transmission to the brain: Newton's speculations......Page 27 2.4 Newton's gravitation principle applied to colour mixture data......Page 28 2.6 Young's colour theory: three instead of seven primaries......Page 30 2.7 Maxwell: triplicity of colour vision proved......Page 32 2.8 Helmholtz: the Young-Helmholtz colour theory......Page 36 3.2 Evidence in favour of the theory......Page 38 3.3 One or several types of cone?......Page 39 3.4 Phototransduction is photochemical in nature: Boll and Khne......Page 41 3.5 Boll: discovery of rhodopsin as a visual photopigment......Page 42 3.6 Kuhne: several photochemical substances in the retina......Page 43 3.8 Parinaud and Konig: early reformulations of the duplicity theory......Page 45 3.9 The duplicity theory of Parinaud......Page 46 3.11 The duplicity theory of Konig......Page 48 3.12 The duplicity theory of von Kries......Page 50 1. Lights that match in day vision may differ in twilight vision: the Purkinje phenomenon.......Page 51 3. Isolation of twilight vision. Congenital, total colour-blindness. Nyctalopia. On comparative anatomy.......Page 52 3.13 An attempt to unify the theories of Schultze and Young-Helmholtz......Page 54 4.1 Phenomenological analysis may reveal underlying material processes......Page 57 4.2 The colour theory of J. W. von Goethe......Page 58 4.3 Goethe's contribution......Page 60 4.4 The colour theory of Ewald Hering......Page 61 4.5 Experiments in support of Hering's colour theory......Page 65 4.6 Contributions of Hering......Page 66 5.1 The colour theory of Tschermak......Page 68 5.2 The duplicity theory of G. E. Muller......Page 69 5.2.2 Cones may inhibit regeneration of rhodopsin......Page 70 5.2.3 Rods subserving chromatic colour vision......Page 71 5.2.4 Three types of cones and five pairs of opponent processes......Page 72 5.2.5 Activation of opponent processes by P1, P2 and P3......Page 73 5.2.8 The P3 system......Page 74 5.3 Evaluation of G. E. Muller's colour theory......Page 75 Part II The development of the duplicity theory from 1930–1966......Page 77 6 The duplicity theory of Polyak......Page 78 6.1 Trichromacy of colour vision explained by three types of bipolar cell......Page 79 6.3 The specific fibre-energy doctrine questioned......Page 81 6.4 Applications of Polyak's colour theory......Page 82 6.5 Common pathways of rods and cones......Page 83 6.6 Explanations of acuity and sensitivity differences between rods and cones......Page 85 6.7 The functional potentials of the synaptic arrangement......Page 86 7.2 The electrical responses in single optic nerve fibres of Limulus......Page 88 7.3 The electrical responses in single optic nerve fibres of the frog......Page 90 7.4 Receptive field organization of rods and cones: Kuffler's investigation......Page 91 8.1 Supporting evidence for the duplicity theory from the ERG technique......Page 94 8.2 The dominator-modulator theory......Page 97 8.2.1. The trichromatic colour theory challenged......Page 98 8.3 Schultze's duplicity theory challenged......Page 99 9 Contributions of E. N. Willmer, P. Saugstad & A. Saugstad, and I. Lie......Page 102 9.1.1 Colour vision explained by two types of rod and one type of cone......Page 103 9.1.2 Evidence supporting Willmer's duplicity theory......Page 105 9.1.3 Reformulation of Willmer's duplicity theory......Page 106 9.1.4 Evidence supporting rods as 'blue' primaries......Page 107 9.1.5 Evidence opposing rods as 'blue' primaries......Page 108 9.2.1 Reformulation of Schultze's duplicity theory......Page 110 9.2.2 Evidence in support of Schultze's duplicity theory......Page 112 9.2.3 Evidence against Schultze's duplicity theory......Page 113 9.3.1 Psychophysical experiments......Page 116 9.3.3 An alternative explanatory model......Page 119 10.1 Elaboration and revision of the two most basic assumptions of Schultze's duplicity theory......Page 121 Part III Chromatic rod vision: a historical account......Page 124 11 Night vision may appear bluish......Page 125 12.1 All principle hues may be observed in scotopic vision......Page 129 12.2 Scotopic contrast colours are triggered by rod signals......Page 130 12.3 Scotopic contrast colours depend on selective chromatic adaptation of cones......Page 131 12.4 Scotopic hues explained......Page 132 12.5 Modifications of Hering's opponent colour theory......Page 134 13.1 Rod-cone interactions under mesopic conditions in a chromatically neutral state of adaptation......Page 136 13.2 Rod-cone interactions under mesopic conditions in a chromatic state of adaptation......Page 138 14.1 Contribution of J. J. McCann and J. L. Benton......Page 140 14.2 Contribution of P. W. Trezona......Page 142 14.3 Contribution of C. F. Stromeyer III......Page 143 14.4 Contribution of S. Buck and co-workers......Page 144 14.5. Contribution of J. L. Nerger and co-workers......Page 145 Part IV Theories of sensitivity regulation of the rod and cone systems: a historical account......Page 147 15 Introduction......Page 148 16 Early photochemical explanations......Page 149 17.1 Hecht's photochemical theory......Page 151 17.2 Supporting evidence obtained from invertebrates......Page 152 17.3 Supporting evidence obtained from psychophysical experiments......Page 153 18.1 Molecular basis of bleaching and regeneration of photopigments in rods and cones......Page 156 18.3 The neural factor refuted......Page 160 19.2 Results of Granit......Page 163 19.3 Granit' s explanation......Page 164 19.4 Wald' s explanation: compartment theory......Page 165 19.5 A logarithmic relationship between sensitivity and amount of bleached photopigment......Page 168 19.6 Contribution of J. E. Dowling......Page 169 19.7 Contribution of W.A.H. Rushton: relationship between sensitivity and amount of bleached rhodopsin in humans......Page 170 20.1 Psychophysical evidence......Page 173 20.2 Anatomical and electrophysiological evidence......Page 174 21.1 Each receptor type has a separate and independent adaptation pool......Page 176 21.2 Are light and dark adaptation really equivalent?......Page 178 21.3 A decisive experiment......Page 179 21.4 The adaptation mechanisms explored by the after-flash technique......Page 180 21.5 Limitations of Rushton' s photochemical theory......Page 182 22.2 Both noise and neural mechanisms involved......Page 185 22.3 Evidence in support of the noise theory......Page 186 22.4 Opposing evidence......Page 187 22.5 Sensitivity difference between rods and cones explained......Page 188 23 Rushton and Barlow compared......Page 190 24.1 Contribution of T.D. Lamb......Page 191 24.2 The search for a new formula......Page 193 24.3 Differences between rod and cone dark adaptation......Page 195 24.4 Light and dark adaptation are not equivalent......Page 196 24.5 Allosteric regulation of dark adaptation......Page 197 24.6 A search for the allosteric adaptation mechanisms......Page 198 25 Several mechanisms involved in sensitivity regulation......Page 202 26 Sensitivity regulation due to rod-cone interaction......Page 206 27 Modern conceptions of sensitivity regulation......Page 208 Part V Factors that triggered the paradigm shifts in the development of the duplicity theory......Page 211 28 Summary of K. R. Popper's and T. S. Kuhn's models of scientific development......Page 215 29 The development of the duplicity theory as a test of Popper's and Kuhn's models......Page 219 References......Page 223 Index......Page 237 Development of the basic ideas of the duplicity theory from Newton to G.E. Müller Newton tradition Schultze tradition Goethe tradition: the phenomenological approach Colour theories of Armin Tschermak Development of the duplicity theory from 1930-1966 Duplicity theory of Polyak Investigations of H.K. Hartline and S.W. Kuffler Duplicity theory of R. Granit Contributions of E.N. Willmer, P. Saugstad & A. Saugstad, and I. Lie Status of the duplicity theory in the mid 1960s and its further development Chromatic rod vision: a historical account - Night vision may appear bluish Mechanisms of chromatic rod vision in scotopic illumination Rod-cone interactions in mesopic vision Further exploration of chromatic rod vision Theories of sensitivity regulation of the rod and cone systems: a historical account Early photochemical explanations Contribution of S. Hecht Contribution of G. Wald: photochemical sensitivity Relationship between amount of rhodopsin and sensitivity during dark adaptation Post-receptor sensitivity regulation mechanisms Rushton's AGC model Contribution of H.B. Barlow Rushton and Barlow compared Dowling-Rushton equation refuted Several mechanisms involved in sensitivity regulation Sensitivity regulation due to rod-cone interaction Modern conceptions of sensitivity regulation Factors that triggered the paradigm shifts in the development of the duplicity theory Summary of K.R. Popper's and T.S. Kuhn's models of scientific development Development of the duplicity theory as a test of Popper's and Kuhn's models.