The Cranial Nerves in Neurology : A Comprehensive and Systematic Evaluation of Cranial Nerves, Pathology and Specific Conditions

This book presents a complete summary about the 12 pairs of cranial nerves (CN). They control much of the motor and sensory functions of the head and neck such as smell, sight, eye movement, and feeling in the face. The CN also control balance, hearing, and swallowing. The examination of the CN is an important part of the clinical neurological examination. Additionally, to the anatomy, extensive knowledge about further diagnostic tools are necessary such as neuroimaging, and electrophysiology. The book is divided into three parts: a general part with anatomy and imaging, a systematic part grouping the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, and a part describing cranial nerve functions in specific conditions and diseases. Acknowledgment Contents Contributors Part I: Introduction 1: Anatomy of the Cranial Nerves: Novel Concepts and Traditional Descriptions Introduction Systematics Cranial Nerves Olfactory Nerve (CN I) Terminal Nerve (CN 0, CN XIII) Optic “Nerve” (CN II) Nerves Associated with the Parasellar (Cavernous Sinus) Region: CN III to CN VI Oculomotor Nerve (CN III) Trochlear Nerve (CN IV) Trigeminal Nerve (CN V) Abducens Nerve (CN VI) Nerves of the Cerebellopontine Angle (CN VII and CN VIII) (Intermedio) Facial Nerve (CN VII) Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) Nerves Exiting from the Anterolateral Sulcus (CN IX–CN XI) Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX) Vagus Nerve (CN X) Accessory Nerve (CN XI) Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII) Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Nerves in the Head and Neck Ciliary Ganglion Pterygopalatine Ganglion Submandibular Ganglion Otic Ganglion References 2: Imaging Introduction Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory Nerve Cranial Nerve II: Optic Nerve Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor Nerve Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear Nerve Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal Nerve Cranial Nerve VI: Abducens Nerve Cranial Nerve VII: Facial Nerve Cranial Nerve VIII: Vestibulocochlear Nerve Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve Cranial Nerve X: Vagus Nerve Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory Nerve Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal Nerve Cavernous Sinus/Cavernous Sinus Region/Parasellar Region Gasserian Ganglion/Semilunar Ganglion/Trigeminal Ganglion/Meckel’s Cave Orbit References 3: Electrodiagnosis of Cranial Nerves Introduction Optic Nerve Visual Evoked Potentials Trigeminal Nerve Electrical Blink Reflex Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Other Methods Facial Nerve Nerve Conduction Study (NCV) Repetitive Facial Nerve Stimulation Needle Electromyography (EMG) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Other Methods Vestibulocochlear Nerve Brain Stem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEPs) Vagus Nerve Accessory Nerve Nerve Conduction Study (NCV) Needle Electromyography (EMG) Hypoglossal Nerve Nerve Conduction Study (NCV) Needle EMG References 4: Cranial Nerve Examinations References Part II: Introduction 5: Cranial Nerve I: Olfactory Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 6: Cranial Nerve II: Optic Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions: (Fig. 6.1) Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 7: Cranial Nerve III: Oculomotor Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 8: Cranial Nerve IV: Trochlear Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 9: Cranial Nerve V: Trigeminal Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions: [4] Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 10: Cranial Nerve VI: Abducens Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency: (Table 10.2) Combination with Other CN Main Investigations [16] Therapy References 11: Cranial Nerve VII: Facial Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 12: Cranial Nerve VIII: Acoustic Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CNs Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 13: Cranial Nerve VIII: Vestibular Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 14: Cranial Nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location Combination with Other CNs Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 15: Cranial Nerve X: Vagus Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesions Combination with Other CNs Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 16: Cranial Nerve XI: Accessory Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location of Lesion Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main investigations Therapy References 17: Cranial Nerve XII: Hypoglossal Nerve Symptoms Signs Specific Qualities Location: [2] Combination with Other CN Causes and Frequency Main Investigations Therapy References 18: Cranial Nerve: Side Topics The Pupil Conditions Associated with Pupillary Dysfunction Symptoms and Signs Horner’s Syndrome Signs (Fig. 18.1) Causes: See Table 18.1 Main Investigations The Eyelids Ptosis Appearance Classification Causes The Oral Cavity and Dysphagia Oral Cavity Functions Main Investigations Causes of Dysphagia The Tongue Tongue Dysfunction Special Senses Movement Disorders Main Investigations Other Specific Conditions CNs in Coma Multiple CN Lesions Differential Diagnosis Anastomosis of CNs The Concept of Angiosoma References Part III: The Cranial Nerves in Specific Conditions (diseases) 19: Central Innervation of Motor Cranial Nerves Introduction Central Innervation of CNs III, IV, and VI Anatomy of the Central Innervation of the Third, Fourth, and Sixth CNs Clinical Implications of Central Innervation of the Third, Fourth, and Sixth CNs Functional Implications of Central Innervation of the Third, Fourth, and Sixth CNs Summary Central Innervation of CN VII Anatomy of the Central Innervation of CN VII Clinical Implications of Central Innervation of CN VII Functional Implications of Bilateral Innervation of CN VII Summary Central Innervation of CNs IX and X Anatomy of the Central Innervation of CNs IX and X Clinical Implications of the Central Innervation of CNs IX and X Functional Implications of Bilateral Innervation of CNs IX and X Summary Central Innervation of CN XII Anatomy of the Central Innervation of CN XII Clinical Implications of the Central Innervation of CN XII Functional Implications of Central Innervation of CN XII Summary Conclusion References 20: Diabetic Cranial Neuropathies Introduction Epidemiology Risk Factors Diabetic CN III Cranial Neuropathy Diabetic CN VI Cranial Neuropathy Diabetic CN IV Cranial Neuropathy Diabetic CN VII Cranial Neuropathy Simultaneous Multiple Cranial Neuropathies Other Cranial Neuropathies Less Frequently Associated with Diabetes Cranial Autonomic Dysfunction Recommendation References 21: Cranial Nerves and Paraneoplastic Disorders Introduction Paraneoplastic Neurological Syndrome with Cranial Nerve Involvement Paraneoplastic Cranial Neuropathies Paraneoplastic Brainstem Encephalitis Cranial Nerve Disorders Associated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors References 22: Toxicity and Cranial Nerves Introduction Time Course CNs Affected Isolated Cn Lesions or as Part of a Generalized Neuropathy Focal Toxicity Individual CNs Olfactory Nerve Optic Nerve Oculomotor Nerve Trochlear Nerve Trigeminal Nerve Abducens Nerve Facial Nerve Auditory Nerve Vestibular Nerve Glossopharyngeal nerve: Vagus Nerve Accessory Nerve Hypoglossal Nerve Multiple CN Lesions Other Causes Conclusion References 23: Chemotherapy-Induced Cranial Nerve Damage Introduction Olfactory Manifestations Auditory Manifestations Ocular Manifestations Vocal Manifestations Vestibular Impairment Other Cranial Nerve Manifestations Conclusions References 24: Cranial Nerves and Myopathies Introduction Ophthalmoplegia and/or Ptosis in Muscle Disorders Mitochondrial Myopathies: Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia (CPEO) and Kearns–Sayre Syndrome (KSS) Congenital Myopathies: Centronuclear Myopathies (CNM) Facial Weakness in Muscle Disorders Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 (DM1) or Steinert Disease Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy (FSHD1, FSHD2) Bulbar Weakness in Muscle Disorders Oculopharyngeal Muscular Dystrophy (OPMD) Sporadic Inclusion Body Myositis (sIBM) References 25: Cranial Nerve Involvement in Genetic Disorders Introduction Cranial Nerve Lesions as Primary Disease Manifestation Cranial Nerve Lesions in Complex Neurogenetic Disorders Cranial Nerve Lesions in Multisystem Disorders Discussion References 26: Cranial Nerves and Autoimmune Conditions Introduction Cranial Nerve Involvement in Autoimmune Conditions of the Central Nervous System Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Neuromyelitis Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD) Giant Cell Arteritis Neurosarcoidosis Rarer Autoimmune Conditions with Cranial Neuropathy Cranial Nerve Involvement in Autoimmune Conditions of the Peripheral Nervous System Cranial Nerve Involvement in Guillain–Barré Syndrome Cranial Neuropathy in Chronic Immune Neuropathies Discussion Recommendations References 27: Cranial Nerves and Autonomic Conditions Introduction Origins and Pathways Autonomic Symptoms Autonomic Nervous System Fiber Involvement in Cranial Nerves Effector Organs Selected Autonomic Syndromes and Signs in Cranial Nerves Based on Autonomic Dysfunction Horner’s Syndrome Harlequin Syndrome Flynn Phenomenon Hypolacrimation Autonomic Function Tests of Cranial Nerves Recommendations for Further Reading References 28: Cranial Nerve Tumors Introduction Clinical Presentation Epidemiology and Natural History Radiographical Features Management Development of Systemic Treatment Options Conclusions References 29: Reconstructive Surgical Strategies in Cranial Nerve Repair Introduction Analysis Microsurgical Methods of Cranial Nerve Repair Direct Nerve Repair Nerve Autografting Nerve Allografting and Nerve Conduits Nerve Fiber Transfer End-to-Side Coaptation Technique Microsurgical Neurolysis Muscle–Tendon Transfers Discussion Recommendation References 30: Pathological Conditions Affecting Cranial Nerves at the Skull Base and Neurosurgical Intervention Strategies Introduction Etiological Outline Analysis, Symptoms, and Diagnostics Discussion and Neurosurgical Treatment Strategies References 31: Cranial Nerve Infections Introduction Viruses Coronavirus Disease Herpesviridae Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Poliovirus Other Viruses Bacteria Tuberculosis Lyme Disease Leprosy Syphilis Neurobrucellosis Botulism Listeria Other Bacteria Fungi Mucormycosis Cryptococcus neoformans Other Fungi Parasites Neurocysticercosis Neuroschistosomiasis Other Parasites Conclusions References 32: Traumatic Lesions of the Cranial Nerves Introduction Causes Individual Cranial Nerve Lesions Cranial Nerve I Cranial Nerve II Cranial Nerve III Cranial Nerve IV Cranial Nerve VI Cranial Nerve V Cranial Nerve VII Cranial Nerve VIII Cranial Nerves IX, X, and XI Cranial Nerve XI Cranial Nerve XII Multiple CN Lesions in Trauma Imaging Electrophysiology Multidisciplinary Approach Discussion Recommendations References 33: Neuromuscular Transmission and Paroxysmal Disorders of Cranial Nerves Neuromuscular Transmission Disorders Myasthenia Gravis Lambert Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Botulism Paroxysmal CN Disorders CN III, IV, VI: Ocular Neuromyotonia CN IV: Superior Oblique Myokymia CN V: Trigeminal Neuralgia and Auriculotemporal Neuralgia CN VII: Facial Hemispasm CN VII: Geniculate Neuralgia CN VIII: Vestibular Paroxysmia CN IX: Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia CN X: Superior Laryngeal Neuralgia CN XII: Hemilingual Spasm References 34: Pain Syndromes in Cranial Nerves Introduction Trigeminal Neuralgia Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis Pathophysiology Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia Auriculotemporal Neuralgia Painful Trigeminal Neuropathy Clinical Description and Diagnosis Treatment of Trigeminal Neuropathy Herpes Zoster Neuropathy Differential Diagnoses of Trigeminal Neuropathy Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia Clinical Description and Diagnosis Treatment of Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia Nervus Intermedius Neuralgia (Geniculate Neuralgia) Clinical Description and Diagnosis Treatment of Nervus Intermedius Neuralgia Nervus Intermedius Neuropathy Occipital Neuralgia Clinical Description and Diagnosis Treatment of Occipital Neuralgia Superior Laryngeal Neuralgia References 35: Hallucinations Involving Cranial Nerve FunctionT Introduction Prevalence Auditory Hallucinations Visual Hallucinations Olfactory Hallucinations Gustatory Hallucinations Rare Diseases Charles Bonnet Syndrome Musical Hallucinations Olfactory Reference Syndrome Conclusion References