The Corpus Callosum : Embryology, Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology, Neuropathology, and Surgery

This book provides an in-depth review of knowledge of the corpus callosum, called white matter or terra incognita, with emphasis on anatomical, embryological, diagnostics, and surgical features. It includes very informative chapters from leaders in the field, organized into six main groups: first, the embryology, neuroanatomy, and morphometry of the corpus callosum, and animal studies related to it; secondly, neurophysiological aspects, callosal disconnection and the split brain; thirdly, neuropathology, including clinical disorders such as dementia, Tourette syndrome, and schizophrenia; fourthly, surgical procedures including partial and complete callosotomy and commissurotomy; fifthly, cognitive neuroscience; and sixthly, other features of the corpus callosum, including its medicolegal aspects and statistical shape analysis. This comprehensive reference book will be an ideal source for neuroscientists at all levels, from graduate students to researchers in specific disciplines studying this region including neuroanatomists, embryologists, neurosurgeons, neurologists, neuroradiologists and pediatricians, who seek both basic and more advanced information regarding the distinctive anatomical, physiological and pathological features of the human corpus callosum. ​ Preface Contents Contributors Part I: Embryology and Neuroanatomy of the Corpus Callosum Editor’s Summary 1: History of the Corpus Callosum 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Galen of Pergamos 1.3 The Vesalius Studies 1.4 Peyronie, Monro, and Gall 1.5 The Studies of Félix Vicq d’Azyr, Romberg, and Gowers 1.6 Reil and Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1.7 Studies by Bean, Holloway, and Lacoste-Utamsing Regarding Differences in the Size of the Corpus Callosum 1.8 Redvers Ironside, Manfred Guttmacher, and the Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous Systems of Vertebrates, Including Man 1.9 The Work of Hugo Karl Liepmann and Other Experimental Animal Studies 1.10 The Important Contributions of Lashley and Sperry 1.11 Modern-Era Studies 1.12 Famous Persons with Corpus Callosum Anomalies 1.13 Conclusions References 2: Embryonic Development and Myelination of the Corpus Callosum 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Corpus Callosum Embryogenesis 2.2.1 Anterior-to-Posterior Theory of Callosal Development 2.2.2 Bidirectional Theory of Callosal Development 2.3 Myelination 2.3.1 Normal Sequence of Myelination 2.3.2 Radiological Imaging of Myelination 2.3.3 Myelination of the Corpus Callosum References 3: Histogenesis and Developmental Disorders of the Corpus Callosum 3.1 Definition and Etymology 3.2 Corpus Callosum Histology 3.3 Developmental Anomalies Associated with the Corpus Callosum 3.3.1 Holoprosencephaly 3.3.2 Commissural Agenesis 3.3.3 Corpus Callosum Dysgenesis 3.3.4 Corpus Collosum Agenesis 3.3.5 Hypoplasia 3.3.6 Hyperplasia 3.4 Diseases Associated with the Corpus Callosum References 4: Morphological Anatomy of the Corpus Callosum 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Gross Parts of the Corpus Callosum 4.2.1 Dimensions of the Corpus Callosum 4.2.2 Morphometric Subunits of the Corpus Callosum 4.3 Relationships of the Corpus Callosum 4.3.1 Relationships of the Outer Surface 4.3.2 Relationships of the Inner Surface 4.4 Radiation of Corpus Callosum 4.4.1 Directions of Corpus Callosum Fibers 4.4.1.1 The Superior or Dorsal Callosal Radiation 4.4.1.2 The Inferior or Ventral Callosal Radiation 4.4.1.3 The Anterior Callosal Radiation 4.4.1.4 The Posterior Callosal Radiation 4.4.2 Cortical Regions Connected by Radiations of the Corpus Callosum 4.5 Vascularization of the Corpus Callosum 4.5.1 Arterial Supply of the Corpus Callosum 4.5.1.1 Subcallosal Artery 4.5.1.2 Median Callosal Artery 4.5.1.3 Pericallosal Artery 4.5.1.4 Pericallosal Pial Plexus 4.5.1.5 Short Callosal Artery (Perforating Artery) 4.5.1.6 Long Callosal Artery 4.5.1.7 Cingulocallosal Artery 4.5.1.8 Recurrent Cingulocallosal Artery 4.5.1.9 Posterior Pericallosal Artery 4.5.1.10 Industrial Artery 4.5.1.11 Accessory Posterior Pericallosal Artery 4.5.2 Venous Drainage of the Corpus Callosum 4.5.2.1 Central Venous Drainage of the Corpus Callosum Callosal Veins and Callosocingulate Veins Deep Medullary Veins Subependymal Veins 4.5.2.2 Peripheral (Accessory) Venous Drainage of the Corpus Callosum Anterior Vein of Corpus Callosum Posterior (Dorsal) Vein of the Corpus Callosum 4.6 Conclusion References 5: Morphometry of the Corpus Callosum 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Different Imaging Methods for Evaluating the Corpus Callosum 5.2.1 Utrasonography (USG) 5.2.2 Computed Tomography (CT) 5.2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 5.2.4 Morphometric Measurement of the Corpus Callosum 5.2.5 Length of the Corpus Callosum 5.2.6 Anterior-Posterior Diameter of the Corpus Callosum 5.2.7 Corpus Callosum Thickness 5.2.8 Corpus Callosum Height 5.2.9 Evaluation of the Splenium Position 5.2.10 Corpus Callosum Area 5.3 Discussion 5.4 Conclusion References 6: Sex- and Age-Related Differences in the Corpus Callosum 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Age-Related Differences in the Corpus Callosum 6.3 Sex-Related Differences in the Corpus Callosum 6.4 Challenges with Characterizing Sex- and Age-Related Differences 6.4.1 Imaging Variability 6.4.2 Measurement and Normalization Variability 6.4.3 Confounding Variables 6.5 Conclusion References 7: Animal Studies Related with the Corpus Callosum 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Animal Studies Related with the CC 7.2.1 Animal Studies Related with the Development of CC 7.2.2 Animal Studies Related with the CC and Neurodevelopmental Disorder 7.2.3 Animal Studies Related with the CC and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 7.2.4 Animal Studies Related with the CC and Schizophrenia (SCZ) 7.3 Conclusion References 8: Microsurgical Anatomy of the Corpus Callosum 8.1 Introduction References 9: Structural Connectivity of the Corpus Callosum to Other Cortical Regions 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Historical Scientific Discourse Regarding the Structural Connectivity of the CC 9.3 Current Evidence Regarding the Structural Connectivity of the CC 9.4 Clinical Implications of the Structural Connectivity of the CC 9.5 Conclusion References 10: Neuroimaging Techniques for Investigation of the Corpus Callosum 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Imaging Modalities 10.2.1 Ultrasonography 10.2.2 Computed Tomography 10.2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 10.3 Normal Imaging Properties and Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 10.3.1 Normal Imaging Properties 10.3.2 Lesions 10.4 Conclusion References 11: Prenatal Diagnosis of Anomalies of the Corpus Callosum with Three-Dimensional Ultrasound, Transvaginal Sonography, and Fetal MRI 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Normal Sonographic Anatomy of the Corpus Callosum 11.3 Ultrasonographic Findings of Corpus Callosum Agenesis 11.4 The Role of 3D Ultrasound 11.5 The Role of MRI 11.6 Conclusion References 12: Volume Measurements of the Corpus Callosum Volume Using MRI 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methods for Calculating the Corpus Callosum Volume 12.3 Voxel-Based Morphometry 12.4 MRICloud 12.5 Discussion 12.6 Conclusion References Part II: Neurophysiology of the Human Corpus Callosum Editor’s Summary 13: Surgical Techniques for Callosal Disconnection 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Surgical Anatomy 13.3 Surgical Indications 13.4 Preoperative Evaluation 13.5 Open Corpus Callosotomy 13.5.1 Surgical Positioning [3, 15] 13.5.2 Key Surgical Steps [3, 4, 15] 13.6 Radiosurgery 13.6.1 Surgical Positioning [16, 17] 13.6.2 Key Surgical Steps 13.7 Laser Ablation 13.7.1 Surgical Positioning and Considerations [4, 18] 13.7.2 Key Surgical Steps 13.8 MIS/Endoscopic 13.8.1 Surgical Positioning and Considerations [15, 19] 13.8.2 Key Surgical Steps 13.9 Outcomes 13.9.1 Pediatric 13.9.2 Adult 13.9.3 Seizure Freedom 13.10 Complications 13.11 Conclusion References 14: Functional Significance of the Split Brain 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Function in Patients Post-Corpus Callosotomy 14.3 Function in Patients with Congenital Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum 14.4 Conclusion References 15: Handedness and the Corpus Callosum 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Handedness and Corpus Callosum Morphology 15.3 Role of Biological Sex on Corpus Callosum Morphology and Handedness 15.4 Conclusion References 16: Role of the Corpus Callosum in Decision-Making 16.1 Introduction to Decision-Making 16.2 Corpus Callosum and Methods for Studying Decision-Making 16.3 Outcomes of Studies on the Corpus Callosum and Decision-Making References Part III: Congenital and Acquired Neuropathology of the Corpus Callosum Editor’s Summary 17: Agenesis or Hypoplasia of the Corpus Callosum 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Epidemiology 17.3 Etiology 17.3.1 Genetic Factors 17.3.2 Metabolic Disorders 17.3.3 Other CNS Associations 17.4 Histopathology 17.5 Radiology 17.5.1 Morphology 17.5.2 Ultrasonography 17.5.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 17.6 Clinical Findings 17.7 Key Diagnostic Definitions in AgCC 17.8 Conclusion References 18: Thick Fetal Corpus Callosum 18.1 Introduction 18.2 The Corpus Callosum of Albert Einstein’s Brain Could Explain His High Intelligence 18.3 Musical Instrument Training-Related Thickness of the Corpus Callosum 18.4 Conclusion References 19: Vascular Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Ischemic Lesions 19.1.2 Hemorrhagic Lesions 19.2 Conclusions References 20: Toxic Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Marchiafava-Bignami Disease 20.3 The Abuse of Drugs Such as Cocaine and Heroin 20.4 Acute Carbon Monoxide Intoxication and the Corpus Callosum 20.5 Conclusion References 21: Infectious Diseases of the Corpus Callosum 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Viral Infections 21.2.1 Human Herpesviruses-6 (HHV-6) 21.2.2 Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) 21.2.3 Influenza 21.2.4 Rotavirus 21.2.5 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) 21.2.6 Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) 21.2.7 Other Viruses 21.3 Bacterial Infection 21.3.1 Staphylococcus aureus 21.3.2 Escherichia coli (E. coli) 21.3.3 Salmonella enteritidis 21.3.4 Streptococcus 21.3.5 Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) 21.3.6 Enterococcus faecalis 21.4 Conclusion References 22: Inflammatory and Demyelinating Diseases of the Corpus Callosum 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Demyelinating Diseases 22.2.1 Multiple Sclerosis 22.2.2 Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder 22.2.3 Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis 22.2.4 Marchiafava-Bignami Disease 22.2.5 Osmotic Demyelination Syndrome 22.3 Non-demyelinating Inflammatory Diseases 22.3.1 Susac Syndrome 22.3.2 Transient Splenial Lesions 22.3.3 Other Inflammatory Diseases 22.4 Conclusion References 23: Metabolic Pathologies of the Corpus Callosum 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Hypoglycemia 23.3 Central Pontine Myelinolysis 23.4 Other Metabolic Conditions 23.5 Conclusion References 24: Traumatic Axonal Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Biomechanics of Craniocerebral Trauma (Biomechanical Features) 24.3 Pathophysiology of TBI 24.3.1 Pathogenesis of Diffuse Axonal Injury 24.4 Neuropathology 24.5 Structural Imaging 24.6 Clinical Presentation 24.7 Critical Care Management 24.8 Prognosis 24.9 Conclusion References 25: Tumoral Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Structure and Function 25.3 Development of the Human Corpus Callosum 25.4 Hypotheses About Callosal Agenesis 25.4.1 Differential Development Hypothesis 25.4.2 Dorsoventral Splenial Expansion Hypothesis 25.5 Physiological Variants 25.6 Surgical Considerations 25.7 Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 25.7.1 Neoplasms 25.7.1.1 Corpus Callosal Gliomas 25.7.1.2 Epidermoid Cysts 25.7.1.3 Lipomas 25.7.1.4 Lymphoma 25.7.1.5 Metastasis 25.7.2 Vascular Lesions 25.7.2.1 Aneurysms 25.7.2.2 Arteriovenous Malformations (AVMs) 25.7.3 Metabolic Diseases 25.7.4 Infective Etiologies 25.7.5 Demyelinating Diseases 25.7.6 Trauma 25.8 Conclusions References 26: Iatrogenic Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Colossal Puncture 26.3 Ventriculostomy 26.4 Trans Callosal Approach 26.5 Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome 26.6 Radiation Injury 26.7 Conclusion References 27: Other Lesions of the Corpus Callosum 27.1 Corpus Callosum Atrophy or Tissue Loss in Chronic Alcoholism 27.2 Corpus Callosum in High-Altitude Cerebral Edema 27.3 Virchow-Robin Spaces in the Corpus Callosum 27.4 Conclusion References 28: Corpus Callosum in Hydrocephalus 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Relationship Between Ventricular System and Corpus Callosum 28.3 Corpus Callosum in Hydrocephalus and After Shunt Surgery References 29: Corpus Callosum in Dementia 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Structure and Function of the CC 29.3 Cognitive Functions and Pathophysiology 29.4 Evidence of CC Involvement in Dementia 29.5 Conclusion References 30: Changes in Callosal Area in Tourette Syndrome 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Pathophysiology of Tourette Syndrome 30.3 Corpus Callosum in Tourette Syndrome References 31: Callosal Abnormalities in Schizophrenia 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Conclusion References 32: Corpus Callosum in Autism Spectrum Disorder 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Structural and Functional Changes in ASD 32.2.1 Sex Differences 32.3 Conclusion References Part IV: Surgery of the Corpus Callosum Editor’s Summary 33: Partial and Complete Callosotomy of the Corpus Callosum 33.1 Introduction 33.2 History 33.3 Indications 33.4 Contraindications 33.5 Techniques 33.5.1 Preoperative Evaluation 33.5.2 General Recommendations 33.5.3 Microsurgical Technique 33.5.4 Endoscopic Corpus Callosotomy 33.5.5 Corpus Callosotomy Without Craniotomy 33.6 Functional Results 33.7 Complications 33.7.1 General Complications 33.7.2 Disconnection Syndrome 33.7.3 Alien Hand Syndrome (AHS) 33.7.4 Chemical Meningitis 33.7.5 Transient Neurological Deficits 33.7.6 Language Impairment 33.7.7 Cognitive and Neuropsychological Deficits 33.8 Conclusion References 34: Commissurotomy of the Corpus Callosum 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Indication for Surgery 34.3 Surgical Procedures and Techniques 34.3.1 Standard Surgical Procedures 34.3.2 Surgical Techniques 34.4 Surgical Outcomes and Complications 34.5 Conclusion References 35: Endoscope-Assisted Microsurgery of the Corpus Callosum 35.1 Corpus Callosum: An Unusual Neuroanatomical Structure 35.2 Newest Conceptions and Surgical Applications: The Debut of Endoscopy 35.3 Endoscope-Assisted Corpus Callosotomy 35.3.1 Surgical Technique 35.3.1.1 Preoperative Stage 35.3.1.2 Surgical Mindset and Patient Positioning 35.3.1.3 Approach 35.3.1.4 Intradural Phase 35.3.1.5 Closure 35.4 Endoscope-Assisted Interhemispheric Transcallosal Approaches 35.4.1 Indications 35.4.2 Surgical Technique 35.4.2.1 Preoperative Stage, Mind Setting, and Patient Positioning 35.4.2.2 Exposure Pre-Endoscope Stage Endoscope-Assisted Stage Pre-Callosal Phase Callosal Phase Post-Callosal Phase Closure 35.5 Discussion 35.5.1 Advantages 35.5.2 Disadvantages 35.6 Perspectives: A Glimpse of the Future 35.7 Conclusion References Part V: Cognitive Neuroscience Editor’s Summary 36: The Role of the Corpus Callosum in Human Cognition and Anesthesia 36.1 Association Between the Corpus Callosum and Neurocognition 36.2 The Effects of Anesthesia Exposure on the Corpus Callosum and Neurocognition 36.3 Anesthesia Management in Corpus Callosum Pathologies 36.4 Conclusions References 37: Corpus Callosum as Anatomical Marker of Intelligence 37.1 Introduction 37.2 Adults vs. Children 37.2.1 Adults 37.2.2 Children and Adolescents 37.3 Case Study Analyzing Albert Einstein’s Brain 37.4 Conclusion References 38: Corpus Callosum in Dichotic Listening 38.1 Introduction 38.2 Dichotic Listening 38.3 Maturation of Corpus Callosum and Improvement of Dichotic-Listening 38.4 The Effects of Corpus Callosum Lesions on Dichotic-Listening Performance 38.5 Conclusion References 39: Corpus Callosum in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 39.1 Introduction 39.2 ADHD-Related Changes in Corpus Callosum Neurophysiology 39.3 ADHD, Lateralization, and Executive Function 39.4 Brain Mapping Patients with ADHD Versus Control 39.5 Default Mode Network and the Corpus Callosum 39.6 Methylphenidate Treatment and CC Reorganization 39.7 Conclusion References Part VI: Other Features of the Corpus Callosum Editor’s Summary 40: Medicolegal Aspects of Corpus Callosum 40.1 Introduction 40.2 Medicolegal Issues Regarding Lesions Involving the Corpus Callosum 40.2.1 Wrongful Birth 40.2.2 Informed Consent and Parents’ Right to Information 40.3 Case Scenario 40.4 Comment upon Case Scenario 40.5 Conclusion References 41: Statistical Shape Analysis of Corpus Callosum 41.1 Introduction 41.2 Statistical Shape Analysis 41.2.1 Landmark-Based Techniques 41.2.2 Shape Deformations 41.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 41.4 Landmark Acquisition 41.5 Discussion 41.6 Conclusion References Conclusion Index