The Commercial Appropriation of Personality (Cambridge Intellectual Property and Information Law, Series Number 4)

Commercial exploitation of attributes of an individual's personality, such as name, voice and likeness, forms a mainstay of modern advertising and marketing. Such indicia also represent an important aspect of an individual's dignity which is often offended by unauthorized commercial appropriation. This volume provides a framework for analysing the disparate aspects of the problem of commercial appropriation of personality and traces, in detail, the discrete patterns of development in the major common law systems. It also considers whether a coherent justification for a remedy may be identified from a range of competing theories. The considerable variation in substantive legal protection reflects more fundamental differences in the law's responsiveness to commercial practices and different attitudes towards the proper scope and limits of intangible property rights. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 4 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Dedication......Page 7 Contents......Page 9 Preface......Page 13 Table of cases......Page 15 Table of German cases......Page 34 Table of statutes......Page 35 United States......Page 37 Table of International Instruments......Page 38 Part I A framework......Page 39 Introduction......Page 41 Appropriation of personality......Page 43 The broader picture......Page 44 Economic interests......Page 46 Dignitary interests......Page 48 Perspectives......Page 50 The unfair competition perspective......Page 51 The dignitary torts perspective......Page 53 The divergent approaches......Page 57 The converging aims of tort law......Page 59 Synopsis......Page 61 Part II Economic interests and the law of unfair competition......Page 63 2 Introduction......Page 65 The origins of the common law misappropriation doctrine......Page 66 Misappropriation in Anglo-Australian courts......Page 67 Passing off, misappropriation and appropriation of personality......Page 68 The legacy of the American misappropriation doctrine......Page 69 3 Statutory and extra-legal remedies......Page 70 Copyright......Page 71 Performers’ rights......Page 72 Nature and functions......Page 74 The registrability of names......Page 76 Signatures, portraits and other indicia......Page 81 Scope of infringement of registered marks......Page 82 The Independent Television Commission Code......Page 86 The Press Complaints Commission......Page 87 The Advertising Standards Authority Code......Page 88 The Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy......Page 91 Introduction......Page 97 The essential elements of passing off......Page 98 Goodwill and reputation......Page 99 Goodwill in professional, artistic or literary occupations......Page 100 The early English authorities......Page 101 The modern English authorities......Page 105 Summary......Page 107 Introduction......Page 110 The nature of the misrepresentation in English law......Page 111 The nature of the misrepresentation in Australian law......Page 122 Commercial connection and endorsement......Page 127 Character misappropriation......Page 130 Damage......Page 135 Damage through an injurious association......Page 137 Damage through exposure to liability/risk of litigation......Page 139 Loss of control......Page 140 Loss of a licensing opportunity......Page 141 Dilution......Page 143 Two models......Page 145 Three fictions?......Page 146 Introduction......Page 149 Misappropriation of intangibles......Page 150 The genesis of the common law tort of appropriation of personality in Ontario......Page 153 The scope and limits of the tort......Page 160 The protected interest......Page 161 Damage to the plaintiff......Page 165 The defendant’s conduct......Page 169 Conclusions......Page 174 Part III Dignitary interests......Page 177 6 Introduction......Page 179 The juncture of civil and common law......Page 180 Overcoming the common law’s legacy......Page 181 Introduction......Page 183 The Warren and Brandeis thesis......Page 184 The early case law......Page 188 Privacy on appeal......Page 189 Inviolate personality and the accretion of proprietary attributes......Page 194 Conceptions of privacy......Page 197 The reductionist paradigm......Page 199 A holistic conception......Page 202 Reductionism reappraised: a core conception of privacy......Page 204 Privacy a principle......Page 207 The development of the right of publicity in the United States......Page 209 The problem in reconciling privacy and commercial exploitation......Page 210 The birth of the right of publicity......Page 212 The growth of the right of publicity......Page 214 The recognition of the right of publicity......Page 217 The scope and limits of the right of publicity......Page 218 Summary......Page 225 Accounting for the differences......Page 227 Sociological factors......Page 228 Precedent and legal theory......Page 229 Underlying political and institutional structure......Page 232 Academic influences and legal culture......Page 234 Conclusions......Page 236 Introduction......Page 238 Piecemeal recognition of privacy interests in English law......Page 240 Piecemeal statutory provisions......Page 243 Privacy and interests in property: trespass and nuisance......Page 244 Personal privacy and breach of confidence......Page 245 The privacy jurisprudence of the ECHR and commercial exploitation of personality......Page 249 The ‘horizontal’ effect of the Human Rights Act 1998......Page 252 The balancing exercise......Page 256 Canada......Page 262 The German right of personality: introduction......Page 265 The development of the right of personality......Page 268 Scope of the German right of personality......Page 271 Public and private figures: the balancing exercise......Page 273 Appropriation of personality and United Kingdom legislative initiatives......Page 276 Interests in freedom from mental distress......Page 279 The rule in Wilkinson v. Downton and infliction of mental distress......Page 281 Intentional infliction of mental distress in the United States......Page 283 Intentional infliction of mental distress as a residual category......Page 285 Conclusions......Page 286 Introduction......Page 287 The economic and dignitary aspects of reputation......Page 288 The core injury to reputation cases......Page 291 Some borderline cases......Page 296 Defamation and ‘false light’ privacy......Page 299 The convergence of interests......Page 303 Public and private figures......Page 304 Conclusions......Page 307 Par t IV Pervasive problems......Page 309 Introduction......Page 311 Notions of property......Page 312 Intellectual property as metaphor......Page 314 The scope of the metaphor: property and value......Page 316 The uses of the metaphor......Page 317 Proprietary and non-proprietary analyses......Page 319 The significance of the property label in American case law......Page 320 The significance of the property label in Commonwealth case law......Page 322 Conclusions......Page 324 Introduction......Page 325 Introduction......Page 326 Locke’s labour theory......Page 329 General problems with Locke’s theory......Page 330 Problems of specific applicability......Page 331 Hegel’s personality theory......Page 334 Summary......Page 336 The rejection of natural rights......Page 337 Utilitarianism in copyright and patent law......Page 338 Utility, incentive and appropriation of personality......Page 339 Economic efficiency......Page 346 Preventing or reversing unjust enrichment......Page 349 Protecting personal dignity......Page 351 Conclusions......Page 352 Part V Conclusions......Page 355 Personality as trading symbol and as an aspect of personal dignity......Page 357 The basic propositions......Page 359 Towards a new remedy......Page 360 Bibliography......Page 368 Index......Page 387 Cover 1 Half-title 3 Series-title 4 Title 5 Copyright 6 Dedication 7 Contents 9 Preface 13 Table of cases 15 Table of German cases 34 Table of statutes 35 Table of foreign legislation 37 Australia 37 Canada 37 Germany 37 United States 37 Table of International Instruments 38 Part I A framework 39 1 The problem of appropriation of personality 41 Introduction 41 Interests in personality 43 Appropriation of personality 43 The broader picture 44 Economic and dignitary interests 46 Economic interests 46 Dignitary interests 48 Perspectives 50 The unfair competition perspective 51 The dignitary torts perspective 53 The divergent approaches 57 The converging aims of tort law 59 Synopsis 61 Part II Economic interests and the law of unfair competition 63 2 Introduction 65 The origins of the common law misappropriation doctrine 66 Misappropriation in Anglo-Australian courts 67 Passing off, misappropriation and appropriation of personality 68 The legacy of the American misappropriation doctrine 69 3 Statutory and extra-legal remedies 70 Copyright 71 Performers’ rights 72 Registered trade marks 74 Nature and functions 74 The registrability of names 76 Signatures, portraits and other indicia 81 Scope of infringement of registered marks 82 Extra-legal remedies 86 Introduction 86 The Independent Television Commission Code 86 The Press Complaints Commission 87 The Advertising Standards Authority Code 88 The Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy 91 4 Goodwill in personality: the tort of passing off in English and Australian law 97 Introduction 97 The essential elements of passing off 98 Goodwill 99 Goodwill and reputation 99 Goodwill in professional, artistic or literary occupations 100 The early English authorities 101 The modern English authorities 105 Goodwill in personality in Australia 107 Summary 107 Misrepresentation 110 Introduction 110 The nature of the misrepresentation in English law 111 The nature of the misrepresentation in Australian law 122 Commercial connection and endorsement 127 Character misappropriation 130 Damage 135 Damage through an injurious association 137 Damage through exposure to liability/risk of litigation 139 Loss of control 140 Loss of a licensing opportunity 141 Dilution 143 Conclusions 145 Two models 145 Three fictions? 146 5 Unfair competition and the doctrine of misappropriation 149 Introduction 149 Misappropriation of intangibles 150 The development of the common law tort of appropriation of personality 153 The genesis of the common law tort of appropriation of personality in Ontario 153 The scope and limits of the tort 160 The protected interest 161 Damage to the plaintiff 165 The defendant’s conduct 169 Conclusions 174 Part III Dignitary interests 177 6 Introduction 179 The juncture of civil and common law 180 Overcoming the common law’s legacy 181 7 Privacy and publicity in the United States 183 Introduction 183 The development of the right of privacy in the United States 184 The Warren and Brandeis thesis 184 The early case law 188 Privacy on appeal 189 Inviolate personality and the accretion of proprietary attributes 194 Conceptions of privacy 197 The reductionist paradigm 199 A holistic conception 202 Reductionism reappraised: a core conception of privacy 204 Privacy a principle 207 Summary 209 The development of the right of publicity in the United States 209 The problem in reconciling privacy and commercial exploitation 210 The birth of the right of publicity 212 The growth of the right of publicity 214 The recognition of the right of publicity 217 The scope and limits of the right of publicity 218 Summary 225 Accounting for the differences 227 Sociological factors 228 Precedent and legal theory 229 Underlying political and institutional structure 232 Academic influences and legal culture 234 Conclusions 236 8 Privacy interests in English law 238 Introduction 238 Piecemeal recognition of privacy interests in English law 240 Piecemeal statutory provisions 243 Privacy and interests in property: trespass and nuisance 244 Personal privacy and defamation 245 Personal privacy and breach of confidence 245 The privacy jurisprudence of the ECHR and commercial exploitation of personality 249 Towards a general right of privacy 252 The ‘horizontal’ effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 252 The balancing exercise 256 Insights from Canada and Germany 262 Canada 262 The German right of personality: introduction 265 The development of the right of personality 268 Scope of the German right of personality 271 Public and private figures: the balancing exercise 273 Appropriation of personality and United Kingdom legislative initiatives 276 Interests in freedom from mental distress 279 The rule in Wilkinson v. Downton and infliction of mental distress 281 Intentional infliction of mental distress in the United States 283 Intentional infliction of mental distress as a residual category 285 Conclusions 286 9 Interests in reputation 287 Introduction 287 The economic and dignitary aspects of reputation 288 The core injury to reputation cases 291 Defamation and invasion of privacy 296 Early flirtations with privacy 296 Some borderline cases 296 Defamation and ‘false light’ privacy 299 Defamation, privacy and appropriation of personality 303 The convergence of interests 303 Public and private figures 304 Conclusions 307 Par t IV Pervasive problems 309 10 Property in personality 311 Introduction 311 Notions of property 312 Property in intangibles 314 Intellectual property as metaphor 314 The scope of the metaphor: property and value 316 The uses of the metaphor 317 Property in personality 319 Proprietary and non-proprietary analyses 319 The significance of the property label in American case law 320 The significance of the property label in Commonwealth case law 322 Conclusions 324 11 Justifying a remedy for appropriation of personality 325 Introduction 325 Natural rights of property 326 Introduction 326 Locke’s labour theory 329 General problems with Locke’s theory 330 Problems of specific applicability 331 Hegel’s personality theory 334 Summary 336 Utilitarian arguments 337 The rejection of natural rights 337 Utilitarianism in copyright and patent law 338 Utility, incentive and appropriation of personality 339 Economic efficiency 346 Preventing or reversing unjust enrichment 349 Protecting personal dignity 351 Conclusions 352 Part V Conclusions 355 12 The autonomy of appropriation of personality 357 Personality as trading symbol and as an aspect of personal dignity 357 The basic propositions 359 Towards a new remedy 360 Bibliography 368 Index 387 Commercial Exploitation Of Attributes Of An Individual's Personality (name, Voice And Likeness) Is Characteristic Of Modern Advertising And Marketing. This Volume Provides A Framework For Analyzing The Disparate Aspects Of The Commercial Appropriation Of Personality And Traces Its Discrete Patterns In The Major Common Law Systems. It Considers Whether A Coherent Justification For A Remedy May Be Identified From A Range Of Competing Theories.--pub. Descr. Pt. I.a Framework. The Problem Of Appropriation Of Personality -- Pt. Ii. Economic Interests And The Law Of Unfair Competition. Introduction ; Statutory And Extra-legal Remedies ; Goodwill In Personality: The Tort Of Passing Off In English And Australian Law ; Unfair Competition And The Doctrine Of Misappropriation -- Pt. Iii. Dignitary Interests. Introduction ; Privacy And Publicity In The United States ; Privacy Interests In English Law ; Interests In Reputation -- Pt. Iv. Pervasive Problems. Property In Personality ; Justifying A Remedy For Appropriation Of Personality -- Pt. V. Conclusions. The Autonomy Of Appropriation Of Personality. Huw Beverley-smith. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 330-348) And Index. Beverley-Smith provides analyses of the disparate aspects of commercial appropriation of personality and traces, in detail, the discrete patterns of development in the major common law systems. He also considers whether a coherent justification for a new remedy may be identified from a range of competing theories The essence of the problem of appropriation of personality may be put very simply: if one person (A) uses in advertising or merchandising the name, voice or likeness of another person (B) without his or her consent, to what extent will that person (B) have a remedy to prevent such an unauthorised exploitation?