The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States (New Studies in Archaeology)

This book studies the formation of complex societies in prehistoric China during the Neolithic and early state periods, c. 7000–1500 BC. Archaeological materials are interpreted through anthropological perspectives, using systematic analytic methods in settlement and burial patterns. Both agency and process are considered in the development of chiefdoms and in the emergence of early states in the Yellow River region. Interrelationships between factors such as mortuary practice, craft specialization, ritual activities, warfare, exchange of elite goods, climatic fluctuations, and environmental changes are emphasized. This study offers a critical evaluation of current archaeological data from Chinese sources, and argues that, although some general tendencies are noted, social changes were affected by multiple factors in no pre-determined sequence. In this most comprehensive study to date, Li Liu attempts to reconstruct developmental trajectories toward early states in Chinese civilization and discusses theoretical implications of Chinese archaeology for the understanding of social evolution. Half-title 3 Series-title 4 Title 5 Copyright 6 Dedication 7 CONTENTS 9 ILLUSTRATIONS 11 TABLES 15 PREFACE 17 1 Setting the scene 21 Constructing the Longshan culture in archaeology 21 Longshan culture and constructing national history 25 The discovery of Longshan culture and nationalism 25 Longshan culture and a changing view of national history 27 Longshan culture in legendary history 29 Evolutionary approaches to the study of Longshan culture 30 Evolutionary models in Chinese archaeology 30 Constructing a cultural-social evolutionary scheme for China 31 Alternative research strategies 33 The scope of the book 36 2 The changing environmental contexts of Chinas first complex societies 39 Geographic settings 40 Reconstruction of paleoenvironment and cultural development 42 Problems with the reconstruction of paleoenvironment 42 Paleoclimate and cultural development 43 Conclusion 51 3 Household subsistence and ritual 53 Introduction 53 Household activities: a general survey 54 Gender and functional segmentation in household activities 55 Material possessions in the household 59 Household ritual feasting 60 Case studies 62 Human sacrifice 66 A house at Kangjia 68 Features: houses, pits and burials2 71 Artifacts 77 Faunal remains 77 Implications of Kangjia archaeological remains 80 Environment and ecology 80 Subsistence and diet 81 Social activities 83 Hunting and warfare 84 Ritual paraphernalia: turtle shells 84 Divinational implements: oracle bones 87 Ritual feasting 88 Summary 90 Conclusions 91 4 Spatial organization and social relations in communities 93 Introduction 93 Spatial orders of settlements in the Neolithic period 94 Peiligang culture (ca. 7000–5000 BC) 94 Early Yangshao culture (ca. 5000–4000 BC) 98 Middle Yangshao culture (ca. 4000–3500 BC) 103 Late Yangshao culture (ca. 3500–3000 BC) 105 Settlement organization in the late Neolithic period 115 Architectural forms 115 Settlement organization 116 Summary 131 Discussion and conclusions 133 Building form, settlement layout, and residential segregation 133 Control of resources, craft specialization, and social inequality 134 Monumental construction and social organization 135 5 Community burial patterns 137 Introduction 137 Alternative approaches to Neolithic burial patterns 138 Ancestral cults 139 Social stratification 140 Regional variability in burial patterns 146 The Central Plains 146 Lower Yellow River region 158 Upper Yellow River region 166 Discussion 171 Social hierarchy in kin-based societies 171 Ritual paraphernalia and ritual power 175 Conclusion 177 6 Development and decline of complex societies in the Central Plains 179 Introduction 179 Methods 179 Data 181 Regional settlement patterns 182 Early Neolithic period: the Peiligang culture 182 Middle Neolithic period: the Yangshao culture 183 Late Neolithic period: the Longshan culture 188 Social complexity in less-circumscribed regions 205 Settlement patterns and social organization 208 Mono-centered centripetal Longshan regional systems 208 Multi-centered competing regional systems 208 Discussion and conclusions 209 7 Development and decline of social complexity beyond the Central Plains 212 Introduction 212 Regional settlement patterns in Shandong 213 Houli, Beixin, and Dawenkou settlements 213 Longshan settlements 214 Yueshi settlements 227 Regional settlement patterns in Central Shaanxi 228 Laoguantai and Yangshao settlements 228 Longshan settlements 230 Changing settlement patterns 235 Settlement patterns and social organization: a comparison 239 The Shandong region 239 The central Shaanxi region 241 Discussion and conclusions 241 8 Trajectories toward early states 243 Introduction: from chiefdoms to states 243 The Erlitou culture – searching for the Xia dynasty 246 Origins of the Erlitou culture 246 The development of the Erlitou urban core area 249 Erlitou expansion to the periphery 253 Socio-political transition from Longshan to Erlitou 255 The Erlitou world-system 256 The Proto-Shang culture 256 Conclusions 258 9 Reconstructing social processes 259 Introduction 259 Development of social hierarchy and integration 259 Administrative hierarchy, population growth, and territorial expansion 259 Residential and mortuary segregations 262 Strategies for controlling resources 264 Dynamics of social change 266 Geographic configurations and cultural–social interaction 266 Social economic systems 267 Political orientations 267 Ritual power 268 Leadership strategies and trajectories to social complexity 269 Conclusions and further research questions 271 NOTES 274 1 APPENDIXES 276 Appendixes 1 Tool types associated with Neolithic burial 276 Appendixes 7 Distribution in grave size (in sq. m) and number of grave goods from Neolithic burials 284 Appendixes 8 Summary of central places in the Neolithic and Erlitou periods 287 REFERENCES 295 INDEX 321 This Book Studies The Formation Of Complex Societies In Prehistoric China During The Neolithic And Early State Periods, C. 7000-1500 B.c. Archaeological Materials Are Interpreted Through Anthropological Perspectives, Using Systematic Analysis Of Settlement And Burial Patterns. Both Agency And Process Are Considered In The Development Of Chiefdoms And In The Emergence Of Early States In The Yellow River Region. Interrelationships Between Factors Such As Mortuary Practice, Craft Specialization, Ritual Activities, Warfare, Exchange Of Elite Goods, Climatic Fluctuations, And Environmental Changes Are Emphasized. This Study Offers A Critical Evaluation Of Current Archaeological Data From Chinese Sources, And Argues That, Although Some General Tendencies Are Noted, Social Changes Were Affected By Multiple Factors In No Pre-determined Sequence. In This Most Comprehensive Study To Date, Li Liu Attempts To Reconstruct Developmental Trajectories Toward Early States In Chinese Civilization And Discusses Theoretical Implications Of Chinese Archaeology For The Understanding Of Social Evolution.--jacket. Setting The Scene -- The Changing Environmental Contexts Of China's First Complex Societies -- Household Subsistence And Ritual -- Spatial Organization And Social Relations In Communities -- Community Burial Patterns -- Development And Decline Of Complex Societies In The Central Plains -- Development And Decline Of Social Complexity Beyond The Central Plains -- Trajectories Toward Early States -- Reconstructing Social Processes. Li Liu. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 275-300) And Index. "This book studies the formation of complex societies in prehistoric China during the Neolithic and early state periods, c. 7000-1500 B.C. Archaeological materials are interpreted through anthropological perspectives, using systematic analysis of settlement and burial patterns. Both agency and process are considered in the development of chiefdoms and in the emergence of early states in the Yellow River region. Interrelationships between factors such as mortuary practice, craft specialization, ritual activities, warfare, exchange of elite goods, climatic fluctuations, and environmental changes are emphasized. This study offers a critical evaluation of current archaeological data from Chinese sources, and argues that, although some general tendencies are noted, social changes were affected by multiple factors in no pre-determined sequence. In this most comprehensive study to date, Li Liu attempts to reconstruct developmental trajectories toward early states in Chinese civilization and discusses theoretical implications of Chinese archaeology for the understanding of social evolution."--BOOK JACKET This book studies the formation of complex societies in prehistoric China during the Neolithic and early state periods, ca. 7000-1500 BC. Archaeological materials are interpreted through anthropological perspectives, using systematic analytic methods in settlement and burial patterns. Both agency and process are considered in the development of chiefdoms and in the emergence of early states in the Yellow River region. Interrelationships between factors such as mortuary practice, craft specialization, ritual activities, warfare, exchange of elite goods, climatic fluctuations, and environmental changes are emphasised. This study offers a critical evaluation of current archaeological data from Chinese sources, and argues that, although some general tendencies are noted, social changes were affected by multiple factors in no pre-determined sequence. In this most comprehensive study to date, Li Liu attempts to reconstruct developmental trajectories toward early states in Chinese civilization and discusses theoretical implications of Chinese archaeology for the understanding of social evolution. The Yellow River valley of China, during the period ca. 7000-1500, saw the transformation of egalitarian societies into stratified chiefdoms giving rise to early states. This book examines that transformation, emphasizing the interplay of many factors affecting these processes, such as climatic fluctuation, population movements, inter-group competition, warfare, and long-distance exchange of valuables. This book examines the transformation of chiefdom societies in Neolithic China, giving rise to early states. With its wealth of detailed archaeological data and general theoretical paradigms it is essential reading for the student of prehistoric China and the student of global social evolution. There is no need to emphasize the significance of Chinese civilization, which produced one of the few pristine states in the world nearly four thousand year ago.