The Chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest: Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation (Oxford Biology)

Unlike humans, who came down from the trees and developed bipedal locomotion, chimpanzees have remained in the original habitat of our ancestors: the tropical rainforests of Africa. In this book, Vernon Reynolds describes in detail the work of a large number of students and senior researchers on the wild chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest Reserve in Western Uganda. He presents a coherent and in-depth account of one chimpanzee community of more than 60 individuals living in the Sonso area in the middle of the Budongo Forest, which he and his colleagues have studied intensively over the last 15 years. The chimpanzees have never been provisioned and live in an entirely natural state. Reynolds describes their forest habitat, their diet and culture, their social organization and behavior, their diseases, and the threats to them that derive from the actions of people in the surrounding villages, the most serious of these being the presence of snares set by hunters to catch small antelopes and pigs. As founder and head of the Budongo Forest Project, Professor Reynolds has been responsible for compiling the numerous publications, reports, and dissertations written about these chimpanzees. In this book, he combines these new and often unpublished studies with past publications about Budongo Forest. Where appropriate, he also compares the Budongo chimpanzees with wild chimpanzees studied at other sites across Africa. The result is the most comprehensive account of the Budongo chimpanzees ever published, with a wealth of referenced material that will serve as a source of information for many years to come. Contents......Page 8 Acknowledgements......Page 12 Permissions......Page 15 List of Maps......Page 16 Introduction......Page 18 1. The Budongo Forest......Page 22 History of the forest......Page 24 Climate......Page 26 Disease and the human population......Page 27 Dynamics of Budongo Forest......Page 29 Timber......Page 31 The forest today......Page 35 Counting chimpanzees in a community......Page 38 Habituation......Page 42 Data......Page 44 Range and density of the Sonso community......Page 45 Community size......Page 47 Births......Page 49 The birth of Katia......Page 51 Age and age groups......Page 52 Infertility......Page 53 Males who go missing temporarily......Page 54 Intestinal parasites......Page 55 Medicinal plant use......Page 58 Soil-eating......Page 60 SIVcpz status of the Sonso chimpanzees......Page 61 Death of a young adult male......Page 62 Death of an adult female......Page 64 Death of an old male......Page 65 Human–ape disease transmission......Page 67 Injuries......Page 68 Forest types and chimpanzee foods......Page 71 Food types and food species......Page 72 Insects and honey......Page 73 Food preferences......Page 74 Factors underlying food preferences: sugars and tannins......Page 79 Food availability......Page 82 Seed dispersal by chimpanzees......Page 84 Fruit-sharing......Page 86 Termite-eating and sharing......Page 89 Meat-eating......Page 90 Co-ordinated hunting......Page 93 Crop-raiding......Page 96 Sonso culture......Page 97 5. Social organization......Page 102 Party size......Page 103 Party composition......Page 105 Effects of oestrous females on party size and party type......Page 108 Seasonality......Page 110 Influence of food supply on party size......Page 111 Nesting and nesting parties......Page 113 Consortships......Page 116 Kinship......Page 117 Ranges and ranging behaviour......Page 120 Inter-community movements of adult females......Page 121 Inter-community fighting......Page 123 Communication......Page 126 Grooming and other affiliative behaviours......Page 127 Play......Page 131 Sex and reproduction......Page 132 Copulation and time of day......Page 136 Seasonality of oestrous cycles......Page 139 Status......Page 140 Tactical association and alliance partners......Page 143 How to defeat an aggressive challenger......Page 145 Reconciliation......Page 147 Status among females......Page 148 Pant-hoots......Page 150 Screams......Page 159 First observation of infanticide......Page 162 Infanticide by Sonso males......Page 163 Infanticide within the community......Page 167 The role of females in cases of infanticide......Page 168 Zesta......Page 171 Background to Zesta......Page 173 The killing of Zesta......Page 174 Zesta's injuries......Page 176 Interpretation......Page 179 9. The problem of snares......Page 181 The background to snaring......Page 182 Traps......Page 183 Injuries from snares and traps......Page 185 Deaths......Page 187 Deaths from snares......Page 188 Deaths from traps......Page 189 Death from spearing......Page 190 Effects of snare injuries on feeding and social life......Page 192 Snare removal project......Page 196 Live-trap project......Page 203 Release of chimpanzees from live-traps......Page 205 Snare injuries at other sites......Page 206 Micro-demography of the local population......Page 208 Local uses of forest products......Page 211 Local attitudes to the forest......Page 214 Health......Page 215 Medical personnel......Page 216 Cash......Page 217 Fear of the forest......Page 218 Why stay?......Page 219 Beyond cash......Page 220 Crop-raiding......Page 221 Baboons......Page 223 Chimpanzees and humans......Page 224 11. The Kasokwa Forest chimpanzees: a breakdown of trust......Page 229 Tool-use by Kasokwa chimpanzees......Page 231 Chimpanzee–human conflict......Page 232 Further cases of trapping......Page 233 More attacks by chimpanzees......Page 235 Can a solution be found?......Page 236 The role of research......Page 238 The modern setting......Page 240 Management Plan for Budongo Forest Reserve......Page 243 PHVA......Page 245 Conservation education......Page 248 Census of chimpanzees in Uganda......Page 250 Solutions......Page 251 Buffer zones......Page 252 Tree corridors......Page 255 Who is responsible for chimpanzee protection?......Page 256 Action Plan......Page 257 A: The Sonso chimpanzee community......Page 260 B: Sonso chimpanzees: plant food species......Page 262 C: Genetics of the Sonso community......Page 265 D: Report of (a) necropsy on Ruda and (b) outbreak of respiratory disease......Page 270 E: Other primate species of the Budongo Forest......Page 276 F: The Budongo Forest Project......Page 280 References......Page 288 C......Page 308 F......Page 309 K......Page 310 N......Page 311 S......Page 312 V......Page 313 Z......Page 314 Contents 8 Acknowledgements 12 Permissions 15 List of Maps 16 Introduction 18 1. The Budongo Forest 22 History of the forest 24 The forest in more detail 26 Climate 26 Disease and the human population 27 Dynamics of Budongo Forest 29 Timber 31 The forest today 35 2. The Sonso community 38 Counting chimpanzees in a community 38 Habituation 42 Data 44 Range and density of the Sonso community 45 Community size 47 Births 49 The birth of Katia 51 Age and age groups 52 Infertility 53 Demographic structure 54 Males who go missing temporarily 54 3. Morbidity and mortality 55 Intestinal parasites 55 Medicinal plant use 58 Soil-eating 60 SIVcpz status of the Sonso chimpanzees 61 Death rate 62 Death of a young adult male 62 Death of an adult female 64 Death of an old male 65 Human–ape disease transmission 67 Non-fatal epidemic 68 Injuries 68 4. Diet and culture at Sonso 71 Forest types and chimpanzee foods 71 Food types and food species 72 Insects and honey 73 Food preferences 74 Factors underlying food preferences: sugars and tannins 79 Food availability 82 Seed dispersal by chimpanzees 84 Fruit-sharing 86 Termite-eating and sharing 89 Meat-eating 90 Co-ordinated hunting 93 Crop-raiding 96 Sonso culture 97 5. Social organization 102 Parties, food and social factors 103 Party size 103 Party duration 105 Party composition 105 Effects of oestrous females on party size and party type 108 Time of day and party size 110 Seasonality 110 Influence of food supply on party size 111 Nesting and nesting parties 113 Consortships 116 Kinship 117 Ranges and ranging behaviour 120 Inter-community movements of adult females 121 Inter-community fighting 123 6. Social behaviour and relationships 126 Communication 126 Grooming and other affiliative behaviours 127 Play 131 Sex and reproduction 132 Copulation and time of day 136 Seasonality of oestrous cycles 139 Status 140 Status change 143 Tactical association and alliance partners 143 How to defeat an aggressive challenger 145 Reconciliation 147 Status among females 148 Vocalizations 150 Pant-hoots 150 Barks 159 Screams 159 7. Infanticide 162 First observation of infanticide 162 Infanticide by Sonso males 163 Infanticide within the community 167 The role of females in cases of infanticide 168 8. Intra-community killing — the case of Zesta 171 Inter-community killing between adults 171 Zesta 171 Background to Zesta 173 The killing of Zesta 174 Zesta's injuries 176 Interpretation 179 9. The problem of snares 181 The background to snaring 182 Snare types 183 Traps 183 Injuries from snares and traps 185 Deaths 187 Deaths from snares 188 Deaths from traps 189 Death from spearing 190 Effects of snare injuries on feeding and social life 192 Snare removal project 196 Live-trap project 203 Release of chimpanzees from live-traps 205 Snare injuries at other sites 206 10. The human foreground 208 Micro-demography of the local population 208 Local uses of forest products 211 Local attitudes to the forest 214 Health 215 Medical personnel 216 Cash 217 Fear of the forest 218 Why stay? 219 Beyond cash 220 Crop-raiding 221 Why grow 'at-risk' crops? 223 Baboons 223 Chimpanzees and humans 224 11. The Kasokwa Forest chimpanzees: a breakdown of trust 229 Tool-use by Kasokwa chimpanzees 231 Chimpanzee–human conflict 232 Further cases of trapping 233 More attacks by chimpanzees 235 Can a solution be found? 236 The role of research 238 12. The future of Budongo's chimpanzees and of the chimpanzees of Uganda as a whole 240 The modern setting 240 Management Plan for Budongo Forest Reserve 243 PHVA 245 Conservation education 248 Census of chimpanzees in Uganda 250 Hunting and pitsawing 251 Solutions 251 Buffer zones 252 Tree corridors 255 Who is responsible for chimpanzee protection? 256 Action Plan 257 Appendices 260 A: The Sonso chimpanzee community 260 B: Sonso chimpanzees: plant food species 262 C: Genetics of the Sonso community 265 D: Report of (a) necropsy on Ruda and (b) outbreak of respiratory disease 270 E: Other primate species of the Budongo Forest 276 F: The Budongo Forest Project 280 References 288 Index 308 A 308 B 308 C 308 D 309 E 309 F 309 G 310 H 310 I 310 J 310 K 310 L 311 M 311 N 311 O 312 P 312 Q 312 R 312 S 312 T 313 U 313 V 313 W 314 Z 314 In This Book, Vernon Reynolds Describes In Detail The Work Of A Large Number Of Students And Senior Researchers On The Wild Chimpanzees Of The Budongo Forest Reserve In Western Uganda. He Presents A Coherent And In-depth Account Of One Chimpanzee Community Of More Than 60 Individuals Living In The Sonso Area In The Middle Of The Budongo Forest, Which He And His Colleagues Have Studied Intensively Over The Last 15 Years. The Chimpanzees Have Never Been Provisioned And Live In An Entirely Natural State. Reynolds Describes Their Forest Habitat, Their Diet And Culture, Their Social Organization And Behaviour, Their Diseases, And The Threats To Them That Derive From The Actions Of People In The Surrounding Villages, The Most Serious Of These Being The Presence Of Snares Set By Hunters To Catch Small Antelopes And Pigs. Where Appropriate, He Also Compares The Budongo Chimpanzees With Wild Chimpanzees Studied At Other Sites Across Africa. The Result Is The Most Comprehensive Account Of The Budongo Chimpanzees Ever Published, With A Wealth Of Referenced Material That Will Serve As A Source Of Information For Many Years To Come.--jacket. Introduction / Jane Goodall -- 1. The Budongo Forest -- 2. The Sonso Community -- 3. Morbidity And Mortality -- 4. Diet And Culture At Sonso -- 5. Social Organization -- 6. Social Behaviour And Relationships -- 7. Infanticide -- 8. Intra-community Killing -- The Case Of Zesta -- 9. The Problem Of Snares -- 10. The Human Foreground -- 11. The Kasokwa Forest Chimpanzees : A Breakdown Of Trust -- 12. The Future Of Budongo's Chimpanzees And Of The Chimpanzees Of Uganda As A Whole -- App. A. The Sonso Chimpanzee Community -- App. B. Sonso Chimpanzees : Plant Food Species -- App. C. Genetics Of The Sonso Community -- App. D. Report Of (a) Necropsy On Ruda And (b) Outbreak Of Respiratory Disease. Vernon Reynolds. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Unlike humans, who came down from the trees and developed bipedal locomotion, chimpanzees have remained in the original habitat of our ancestors: the tropical rainforests of Africa. In this book, Vernon Reynolds describes in detail the work of a large number of students and senior researchers on the wild chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest Reserve in Western Uganda. He presents a coherent and in-depth account of one chimpanzee community of more than 60 individuals living in the Sonso area in the middle of the Budongo Forest, which he and his colleagues have studied intensively over the last 15 years. The chimpanzees have never been provisioned and live in an entirely natural state. Reynolds describes their forest habitat, their diet and culture, their social organization and behaviour, their diseases, and the threats to them that derive from the actions of people in the surrounding villages, the most serious of these being the presence of snares set by hunters to catch small antelopes and pigs. As founder and head of the Budongo Forest Project, Professor Reynolds has been responsible for compiling the numerous publications, reports, and dissertations written about these chimpanzees. In this book, he combines these new and often unpublished studies with past publications about Budongo Forest. Where appropriate, he also compares the Budongo chimpanzees with wild chimpanzees studied at other sites across Africa. The result is the most comprehensive account of the Budongo chimpanzees ever published, with a wealth of referenced material that will serve as a source of information for many years to come. Describes in detail the work of a large number of students and senior researchers on the wild chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest Reserve in Western Uganda. This book combines studies with past publications, and also compares the Budongo chimpanzees with wild chimpanzees studied at other sites across Africa.