The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, Fourth Edition (Chemical Industries)

Refineries must not only adapt to evolving environmental regulations for cleaner product specifications and processing, but also find ways to meet the increasing demand for petroleum products,particularly for liquid fuels and petrochemical feedstocks. The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, Fourth Edition offers a 21st century perspective on the development of petroleum refining technologies. Like its bestselling predecessors, this volume traces the science of petroleum from its subterranean formation to the physicochemical properties and the production of numerous products and petrochemical intermediates. Presenting nearly 50 percent new material, this edition emphasizes novel refining approaches that optimize efficiency and throughput. It includes new chapters on heavy oil and tar sand bitumen recovery, deasphalting and dewaxing processes, and environmental aspects of refining, including refinery wastes, regulations, and analysis. The text also features revised and expanded coverage of instability and incompatibility, refinery distillation, thermal cracking, hydrotreating and desulfurization, hydrocracking, and hydrogen production. A unique, well-documented, and forward-thinking work, this book continues to present the most complete coverage of petroleum science, technology, and refining available. The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, Fourth Edition provides an ideal platform for scientists, engineers, and other professionals to achieve cleaner and more efficient petroleum processing methods. 9067_fm.pdf......Page 1 The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum......Page 9 Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 11 Preface to the First Edition......Page 13 Author......Page 15 Table of Contents......Page 17 Part I: History, Occurence, and Recovery......Page 35 Table of Contents......Page 0 1.1 Historical Perspectives......Page 37 1.2 Modern Perspectives......Page 44 1.3 Definitions and Terminology......Page 46 1.4.1 Petroleum......Page 48 1.4.3 Bitumen......Page 50 1.4.4 Wax......Page 51 1.4.6 Asphaltoid......Page 52 1.4.8 Kerogen......Page 53 1.4.9 Natural Gas......Page 54 1.5.3 Asphalt......Page 56 1.5.4 Tar and Pitch......Page 57 1.6.1 Asphaltenes, Carbenes, and Carboids......Page 58 1.6.2 Resins and Oils......Page 59 1.7 Oil Prices......Page 60 1.7.2 Oil Price History......Page 61 References......Page 62 2.1 Introduction......Page 65 2.2.1 Classification as a Hydrocarbon Resource......Page 67 2.2.2 Classification by Chemical Composition......Page 68 2.2.3 Correlation Index......Page 70 2.2.4 Density......Page 71 2.2.6 Viscosity......Page 72 2.2.8 Viscosity-Gravity Constant......Page 73 2.2.10 Recovery Method......Page 74 2.3 Miscellaneous Systems......Page 75 2.4.1 Identification and Quantification......Page 77 2.4.2 Future......Page 78 References......Page 79 3.1 Introduction......Page 81 3.2.1 Abiogenic Origin......Page 82 3.2.2 Biogenic Origin......Page 84 3.2.2.2 Establishment of Source Beds......Page 86 3.2.2.3 Nature of the Source Material......Page 88 3.2.2.4 Transformation of Organic Matter into Petroleum......Page 91 3.2.2.5 Accumulation in Reservoir Sediments......Page 92 3.2.2.6.1 Thermal Alteration......Page 97 3.2.2.6.2 Deasphalting......Page 99 3.2.3 Differences between the Abiogenic Theory and the Biogenic Theory......Page 100 3.2.4 Relationship of Petroleum Composition and Properties......Page 101 3.3 Occurrence......Page 103 3.3.1 Reserves......Page 104 3.3.2 Conventional Petroleum......Page 107 3.3.3 Natural Gas......Page 108 3.3.5 Bitumen (Extra Heavy Oil)......Page 110 References......Page 113 4.2 Properties......Page 117 4.4 Classification......Page 121 4.5 Isolation......Page 122 4.6.1 Ultimate (Elemental) Analysis......Page 123 4.6.3 Oxidation......Page 124 4.6.4 Thermal Methods......Page 125 4.7 Structural Models......Page 126 4.8 Kerogen Maturation......Page 128 References......Page 130 5.1 Introduction......Page 133 5.2 Exploration......Page 134 5.2.1 Gravity Methods......Page 135 5.2.2 Magnetic Methods......Page 136 5.2.3 Seismic Methods......Page 137 5.2.5 Electromagnetic Methods......Page 138 5.2.7 Borehole Logging......Page 139 5.3.1 Preparing to Drill......Page 140 5.3.2 Drilling Rig......Page 141 5.3.4 Drilling......Page 143 5.4 Well Completion......Page 144 5.5 Recovery......Page 145 5.5.1 Primary Recovery (Natural Methods)......Page 148 5.5.2 Secondary Recovery......Page 151 5.5.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery......Page 153 5.6 Products and Product Quality......Page 167 5.7 Transportation......Page 169 References......Page 174 6.1 Introduction......Page 177 6.2.1 Tar Sand Mining......Page 184 6.2.2 Hot-Water Process......Page 186 6.2.3 Other Processes......Page 189 6.3 Nonmining Methods......Page 191 6.3.1 Steam-Based Processes......Page 193 6.3.2 Combustion Processes......Page 194 6.3.3 Other Processes......Page 197 References......Page 207 Part II: Composition and Properties......Page 209 7.1 Introduction......Page 211 7.2 Ultimate (Elemental) Composition......Page 212 7.3 Chemical Components......Page 213 7.3.1 Hydrocarbon Constituents......Page 215 7.3.1.1 Paraffin Hydrocarbons......Page 216 7.3.1.2 Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbons (Naphthenes)......Page 218 7.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 219 7.3.2 Nonhydrocarbon Constituents......Page 221 7.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds......Page 222 7.3.2.3 Nitrogen Compounds......Page 224 7.3.2.4 Metallic Constituents......Page 226 7.3.2.5 Porphyrins......Page 227 7.4 Chemical Composition by Distillation......Page 229 7.4.1 Gases and Naphtha......Page 231 7.4.2 Middle Distillates......Page 232 7.4.3 Vacuum Residua (1050°F+)......Page 234 References......Page 235 8.1 Introduction......Page 239 8.2 Distillation......Page 241 8.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure......Page 244 8.2.2 Reduced Pressures......Page 245 8.2.3 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation......Page 247 8.3 Solvent Treatment......Page 248 8.3.1.1 Influence of Solvent Type......Page 250 8.3.1.3 Influence of Temperature......Page 253 8.3.2 Fractionation......Page 254 8.4.1 Chemical Factors......Page 256 8.4.2.1 General Methods......Page 257 8.4.2.2 ASTM Methods......Page 261 8.5.1 Acid Treatment......Page 263 8.5.2.1 Urea Adduction......Page 265 8.5.2.3 Adduct Composition......Page 266 8.5.2.4 Adduct Structure......Page 267 8.5.2.5 Adduct Properties......Page 268 8.6 Use of the Data......Page 269 References......Page 271 9.1 Introduction......Page 273 9.2 Petroleum Assay......Page 274 9.3.1 Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis......Page 277 9.3.2 Density and Specific Gravity......Page 278 9.3.3 Viscosity......Page 280 9.3.4 Surface and Interfacial Tension......Page 283 9.3.5 Metals Content......Page 285 9.4.1 Volatility......Page 286 9.4.2 Liquefaction and Solidification......Page 289 9.4.3 Carbon Residue......Page 291 9.4.4 Aniline Point......Page 292 9.4.8 Thermal Conductivity......Page 293 9.4.11 Critical Properties......Page 294 9.5.3 Dielectric Strength......Page 295 9.5.5 Static Electrification......Page 296 9.6.1 Refractive Index......Page 297 9.7 Spectroscopic Methods......Page 298 9.7.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance......Page 299 9.8.1 Gas Chromatography......Page 300 9.8.2 Simulated Distillation......Page 303 9.8.3 Adsorption Chromatography......Page 304 9.8.4 Gel Permeation Chromatography......Page 305 9.8.5 Ion-Exchange Chromatography......Page 307 9.8.6 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography......Page 308 9.9 Molecular Weight......Page 309 9.10 Use of the Data......Page 310 References......Page 311 10.1 Introduction......Page 315 10.2 Methods for Structural Group Analysis......Page 317 10.2.1.1 Direct Method......Page 320 10.2.1.2 Waterman Ring Analysis......Page 322 10.2.1.4 n.d.M. Method......Page 323 10.2.1.6 Density-Temperature Coefficient Method......Page 324 10.2.1.7 Molecular Weight-Refractive Index Method......Page 325 10.2.1.8 Miscellaneous Methods......Page 326 10.2.2 Spectroscopic Methods......Page 327 10.2.2.1 Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 328 10.2.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy......Page 331 10.2.2.3 Mass Spectrometry......Page 335 10.2.2.4 Electron Spin Resonance......Page 337 10.2.2.5 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy......Page 338 10.2.2.6 X-Ray Diffraction......Page 339 10.2.3.1 Nitrogen......Page 341 10.2.3.3 Sulfur......Page 342 10.3 Miscellaneous Methods......Page 343 References......Page 344 11.1 Introduction......Page 349 11.2 Separation......Page 350 11.3 Composition......Page 353 11.4 Molecular Weight......Page 358 11.5 Reactions......Page 362 11.6 Solubility Parameter......Page 367 11.7 Structural Aspects......Page 369 References......Page 375 12.1 Introduction......Page 379 12.2.1 Volatile Fractions......Page 380 12.2.2.2 Resins (Structure)......Page 381 12.2.3.2 Structure......Page 383 12.3 Chemical and physical structure of Petroleum......Page 384 12.4 Stability or Instability of the Crude Oil System......Page 389 12.5 Effects on Recovery and Refining......Page 398 12.5.1 Effects on Recovery Operations......Page 399 12.5.2 Effects on Refining Operations......Page 402 References......Page 404 13.1 Introduction......Page 407 13.2 Instability and Incompatibility in petroleum......Page 411 13.3.1 Elemental Analysis......Page 412 13.3.3 Volatility......Page 413 13.3.5 Asphaltene Content......Page 414 13.3.6 Pour Point......Page 415 13.3.8 Metals (Ash) Content......Page 416 13.4 Methods for Determining Instability and Incompatibility......Page 417 13.5 Effect of Asphaltene Constituents......Page 422 References......Page 425 Part III: Refining......Page 427 14.1 Introduction......Page 429 14.2 Dewatering and Desalting......Page 432 14.3 Early Processes......Page 433 14.4 Distillation......Page 434 14.4.1 Historical Development......Page 435 14.4.2.1 Atmospheric Distillation......Page 436 14.4.2.2 Vacuum Distillation......Page 437 14.5.1 Historical Development......Page 439 14.5.2.2 Visbreaking......Page 442 14.5.2.3 Coking......Page 443 14.6.1 Historical Development......Page 445 14.6.2 Modern Processes......Page 447 14.6.3 Catalysts......Page 448 14.7.2 Modern Processes......Page 449 14.8.1 Historical Development......Page 452 14.8.2.2 Catalytic Reforming......Page 453 14.8.2.3 Catalysts......Page 454 14.9.2 Modern Processes......Page 455 14.9.3 Catalysts......Page 456 14.10.2 Modern Processes......Page 457 14.11.2 Modern Processes......Page 458 14.12.1 Deasphalting......Page 459 14.12.2 Dewaxing......Page 460 14.13 Refining Heavy Feedstocks......Page 461 14.14 Petroleum Products......Page 465 14.15 Petrochemicals......Page 467 References......Page 468 15.1 Introduction......Page 471 15.2.1 Thermal Cracking......Page 473 15.2.2 Catalytic Cracking......Page 474 15.3 Hydrogenation......Page 477 15.3.2 Hydrotreating......Page 478 15.4 Isomerization......Page 479 15.6 Polymerization......Page 480 15.7.1 Thermal Chemistry......Page 481 15.7.2 Hydroconversion Chemistry......Page 490 15.7.3.1 Visbreaking......Page 491 15.7.3.2 Hydroprocessing......Page 494 References......Page 496 16.1 Introduction......Page 499 16.2 Pretreatment......Page 501 16.3 Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation......Page 502 16.3.1 Atmospheric Distillation......Page 504 16.3.2 Vacuum Distillation......Page 507 16.4.1 Columns......Page 509 16.4.3 Trays......Page 511 16.5.1 Stripping......Page 512 16.5.3 Stabilization and Light End Removal......Page 513 16.5.4 Superfractionation......Page 514 16.5.5 Azeotropic Distillation......Page 515 16.5.6 Extractive Distillation......Page 517 16.5.7 Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks......Page 518 References......Page 519 17.1 Introduction......Page 521 17.2 Early Processes......Page 526 17.3 Commercial Processes......Page 527 17.3.1 Visbreaking......Page 528 17.3.2 Coking Processes......Page 533 17.3.2.1 Delayed Coking......Page 534 17.3.2.2 Fluid Coking......Page 537 17.3.2.3 Flexicoking......Page 539 17.3.3.2 Asphalt Coking Technology (ASCOT) Process......Page 541 17.3.3.3 Comprehensive Heavy Ends Reforming Refinery (Cherry-P) Process......Page 542 17.3.3.4 Decarbonizing......Page 543 17.3.3.6 Eureka Process......Page 544 17.3.3.7 Fluid Thermal Cracking (FTC) Process......Page 545 17.3.3.8 High Conversion Soaker Cracking (HSC) Process......Page 546 17.3.3.12 Shell Thermal Cracking......Page 549 17.3.3.13 Tervahl T Process......Page 551 References......Page 552 18.1 Introduction......Page 555 18.3 Commercial Processes......Page 559 18.3.2.1 Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking......Page 560 18.3.2.5 Universal Oil Products (UOP) Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking......Page 562 18.3.3.4 Suspensoid Catalytic Cracking......Page 563 18.3.4.1 Asphalt Residual Treating (ART) Process......Page 564 18.3.4.2 Residue Fluid Catalytic Cracking (HOC) Process......Page 565 18.3.4.3 Heavy Oil Treating (HOT) Process......Page 566 18.3.4.5 Reduced Crude Oil Conversion (RCC) Process......Page 567 18.3.4.6 Shell FCC Process......Page 568 18.3.4.7 S&W Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process......Page 570 18.4 Catalysts......Page 571 18.5 Process Parameters......Page 572 18.5.1 Reactor......Page 573 18.5.2 Coking......Page 574 18.5.3 Catalyst Variables......Page 576 18.5.4 Process Variables......Page 577 References......Page 578 19.2 Commercial Processes......Page 581 19.2.1 Deasphalting Process......Page 582 19.2.2 Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks......Page 588 19.2.2.1 Deep Solvent Deasphalting Process......Page 589 19.2.2.2 Demex Process......Page 592 19.2.2.3 MDS Process......Page 593 19.2.2.4 Residuum Oil Supercritical Extraction (ROSE) Process......Page 594 19.2.2.6 Lube Deasphalting......Page 595 19.3 Dewaxing Processes......Page 596 References......Page 601 20.1 Introduction......Page 603 20.2 Process Parameters and Reactors......Page 611 20.2.4 Catalyst Life......Page 612 20.2.5 Feedstock Effects......Page 613 20.2.6.1 Downflow Fixed-Bed Reactor......Page 615 20.2.6.2 Upflow Expanded-Bed Reactor......Page 616 20.3 Commercial Processes......Page 617 20.3.3 Gulf-HDS......Page 618 20.3.4 Hydrofining......Page 619 20.3.9 Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks......Page 621 20.3.9.1 Residuum Desulfurization and Vacuum Residuum Desulfurization Process......Page 622 20.3.9.2 Residfining Process......Page 623 20.4 Catalysts......Page 624 20.5 Biodesulfurization......Page 628 20.6 Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Polishing......Page 629 References......Page 631 21.1 Introduction......Page 633 21.2 Commercial Processes......Page 639 21.2.1.1 Single-Stage and Two-Stage Options......Page 640 21.2.2.2 CANMET Hydrocracking Process......Page 644 21.2.2.3 H-Oil Process......Page 646 21.2.2.5 Hyvahl F Process......Page 648 21.2.2.6 IFP Hydrocracking Process......Page 649 21.2.2.7 Isocracking Process......Page 650 21.2.2.8 LC-Fining Process......Page 651 21.2.2.10 Microcat-RC Process......Page 653 21.2.2.11 Mild Hydrocracking Process......Page 655 21.2.2.12 MRH Process......Page 656 21.2.2.14 Residfining Process......Page 657 21.2.2.16 Tervahl-H Process......Page 658 21.2.2.17 Unicracking Process......Page 659 21.2.2.18 Veba Combi Cracking Process......Page 661 21.3 Catalysts......Page 662 References......Page 669 22.1 Introduction......Page 671 22.2.1 Hydrotreating......Page 674 22.2.2 Hydrocracking......Page 675 22.3 Feedstocks......Page 676 22.4 Process Chemistry......Page 677 22.5 Commercial Processes......Page 679 22.5.1 Heavy Residue Gasification and Combined Cycle Power Generation......Page 680 22.5.4 Hypro Process......Page 681 22.5.5 Pyrolysis Processes......Page 682 22.5.7 Steam-Methane Reforming......Page 683 22.5.9 Synthesis Gas Generation......Page 685 22.5.10 Texaco Gasification (Partial Oxidation) Process......Page 686 22.6.1 Reforming Catalysts......Page 687 22.6.2 Shift Conversion Catalysts......Page 688 22.7 Hydrogen Purification......Page 689 22.7.2 Pressure-Swing Adsorption Units......Page 690 22.8 Hydrogen Management......Page 692 References......Page 693 23.1 Introduction......Page 695 23.2 Reforming......Page 696 23.2.1 Thermal Reforming......Page 698 23.2.2 Catalytic Reforming......Page 699 23.2.2.1.1 Hydroforming......Page 702 23.2.2.1.3 Platforming......Page 703 23.2.2.1.6 Selectoforming......Page 705 23.2.2.3 Fluid-Bed Processes......Page 706 23.3 Isomerization......Page 707 23.3.2 Butomerate Process......Page 709 23.3.7 Penex Process......Page 710 23.4 Alkylation......Page 711 23.4.1 Cascade Sulfuric Acid Alkylation......Page 712 23.4.2 Hydrogen Fluoride Alkylation......Page 713 23.5.1 Thermal Polymerization......Page 714 23.5.3 Bulk Acid Polymerization......Page 715 23.6.1 Reforming Processes......Page 716 23.6.4 Polymerization Processes......Page 717 References......Page 718 24.1 Introduction......Page 719 24.2.1 Caustic Processes......Page 722 24.2.1.5 Lye Treatment......Page 723 24.2.1.8 Sodasol Process......Page 724 24.2.2 Acid Processes......Page 725 24.2.2.2 Sulfuric Acid Treatment......Page 727 24.2.3.3 Bauxite Treatment......Page 728 24.2.3.8 Thermofor Continuous Percolation Process......Page 729 24.2.4.2 Copper Sweetening Process......Page 730 24.2.4.4 Hypochlorite Sweetening Process......Page 731 24.2.5 Solvent Processes......Page 732 24.2.5.1 Deasphalting......Page 733 24.2.5.2 Solvent Refining......Page 734 24.2.5.3 Dewaxing......Page 737 References......Page 740 25.1 Introduction......Page 741 25.1.1 Gas Streams from Crude Oil......Page 742 25.1.2 Gas Streams from Natural Gas......Page 745 25.2 Gas Cleaning......Page 746 25.3 Water Removal......Page 753 25.3.2 Solid Adsorbents......Page 754 25.3.3 Use of Membranes......Page 755 25.4.1 Extraction......Page 756 25.4.3 Fractionation of Natural Gas Liquids......Page 757 25.6 Acid Gas Removal......Page 758 25.8 Fractionation......Page 762 25.9 Claus Process......Page 763 References......Page 765 26.1 Introduction......Page 767 26.2.1 Composition......Page 772 26.2.3 Properties and Uses......Page 773 26.3.1 Composition......Page 776 26.3.2 Manufacture......Page 777 26.3.4 Octane Numbers......Page 780 26.3.5 Additives......Page 782 26.4.1 Composition......Page 784 26.4.2 Manufacture......Page 785 26.4.3 Properties and Uses......Page 787 26.5 Kerosene......Page 788 26.5.2 Manufacture......Page 789 26.6 Fuel Oil......Page 790 26.7 Lubricating Oil......Page 792 26.7.2 Manufacture......Page 793 26.7.2.3 Solvent Refining Processes......Page 794 26.7.2.6 Finishing Processes......Page 795 26.7.2.7 Older Processes......Page 796 26.7.3 Properties and Uses......Page 797 26.8.1 White Oil......Page 798 26.8.2 Insulating Oil......Page 799 26.9 Grease......Page 800 26.9.1 Lime Soap......Page 801 26.9.5 Cold Sett Grease......Page 802 26.10.2 Manufacture......Page 803 26.11.1 Composition......Page 805 26.11.2 Manufacture......Page 806 26.12 Coke......Page 808 26.13 Sulfonic Acids......Page 810 26.15 Product Blending......Page 811 References......Page 812 27.1 Introduction......Page 815 27.2.1 Halogenation......Page 823 27.2.2 Nitration......Page 824 27.2.3 Oxidation......Page 825 27.2.4 Alkylation......Page 826 27.3 Chemicals from Olefins......Page 827 27.3.1 Hydroxylation......Page 828 27.3.3 Polymerization......Page 830 27.4 Chemicals from Aromatics......Page 831 27.6 Chemicals from Natural Gas......Page 833 27.7 Inorganic Petrochemicals......Page 835 27.8 Synthesis Gas......Page 836 References......Page 837 Part IV: Environmental Issues......Page 839 28.1 Introduction......Page 841 28.2 Definitions......Page 843 28.3 Environmental Regulations......Page 845 28.3.3 Safe Drinking Water Act......Page 846 28.3.5 Toxic Substances Control Act......Page 847 28.3.8 Oil Pollution Act......Page 848 28.4 Process Analysis......Page 849 28.4.1 Gaseous Emissions......Page 852 28.4.2 Liquid Effluents......Page 856 28.4.3 Solid Effluents......Page 857 References......Page 858 29.1 Introduction......Page 861 29.2 Process Wastes......Page 864 29.2.1 Desalting......Page 865 29.2.2 Distillation......Page 866 29.2.3 Thermal Cracking and Visbreaking......Page 869 29.2.4 Coking Processes......Page 870 29.2.5 Fluid Catalytic Cracking......Page 872 29.2.6 Hydrocracking and Hydrotreating......Page 873 29.2.7 Catalytic Reforming......Page 876 29.2.8 Alkylation......Page 877 29.2.9 Isomerization......Page 879 29.2.10 Polymerization......Page 880 29.2.11 Deasphalting......Page 881 29.2.12 Dewaxing......Page 882 29.2.13 Gas Processing......Page 883 29.3 Types of Waste......Page 884 29.3.1 Gases and Lower Boiling Constituents......Page 886 29.3.2 Higher Boiling Constituents......Page 888 29.3.3 Wastewater......Page 889 29.4 Waste Toxicity......Page 891 29.5.3 Requirements......Page 892 29.6 Management of Refinery Waste......Page 893 References......Page 894 30.1 Introduction......Page 895 30.2 Petroleum and Petroleum Products......Page 896 30.4 Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons......Page 898 30.4.1 Gas Chromatographic Methods......Page 900 30.4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy Methods......Page 903 30.4.3 Gravimetric Methods......Page 904 30.4.4 Immunoassay Methods......Page 905 30.5 Petroleum Group Analysis......Page 906 30.5.2 Immunoassay......Page 907 30.5.3 Gas Chromatography......Page 908 30.5.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography......Page 909 30.5.5 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry......Page 910 30.7 Assessment of the Methods......Page 911 References......Page 914 SI Metric Conversion Factors (E = Exponent; I.E. E + 03 = 103)......Page 917 Glossary......Page 919 'The fourth edition of a bestseller, this book details the chemistry and technology of petroleum as it has evolved into the twenty-first century. It includes new chapters on recovery of heavy oil and tar sand bitumen; deasphalting and dewaxing processes; analysis, properties, and specifications for petroleum products; environmental aspects of refining; refinery wastes; entry into the environment; environmental analysis; and new developments. This text also features revised and expanded coverage of instability and incompatibility, refinery distillation, thermal cracking, hydrotreating and desulfurization, hydrocracking, as well as hydrogen production.' from publisher's description