The Cambridge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics)

What is language and how can we investigate its acquisition by children or adults? What perspectives exist from which to view acquisition? What internal constraints and external factors shape acquisition? What are the properties of interlanguage systems? This comprehensive 31-chapter handbook is an authoritative survey of second language acquisition (SLA). Its multi-perspective synopsis on recent developments in SLA research provides significant contributions by established experts and widely recognized younger talent. It covers cutting edge and emerging areas of enquiry not treated elsewhere in a single handbook, including third language acquisition, electronic communication, incomplete first language acquisition, alphabetic literacy and SLA, affect and the brain, discourse and identity. Written to be accessible to newcomers as well as experienced scholars of SLA, the Handbook is organised into six thematic sections, each with an editor-written introduction. Contents 9 Figures 11 Tables 12 Contributors 14 Acknowledgments 17 Introduction 19 Scope and overview 19 Part I Theory and practice 23 Introduction to Part I 25 1 Theories of language from a critical perspective 27 1.1 Introduction 27 1.2 The Chomskyan revolution 27 1.3 Rediscovering the lexicon 31 1.4 Not quite a revolution 32 1.5 A partial consensus 35 1.6 Minimalism and the biolinguistic program 37 1.7 Reconciling biology with culture 39 1.8 Concluding remarks 42 2 History of the study of second language acquisition 44 2.1 Introduction: when does the history of second language begin? 44 2.2 History of the role of a learner's native language in second language acquisition 46 2.2.1 Prehistory of the role of L1 47 2.2.2 Role of L1 in twentieth-century structuralism 48 2.2.3 Reconceptualizing the role of L1 in the 1970s-1980s 50 2.2.4 Late twentieth-century research on the role of L1 52 2.3 History of research on the inherent capacities of second language learners 53 2.3.1 “Cartesian linguistics” 53 2.3.2 Emergence of the notion of interlanguage 55 2.3.3 Reappraising the basis of L2 learners’ capacities 56 2.4 History of the role of social context in L2 acquisition 58 2.4.1 Social interaction in L2 acquisition: fourth versus twentieth century 58 2.4.2 Conceptualization of cognitive versus social factors in L2 learning 60 2.5 Conclusion 62 3 Theoretical approaches 64 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Why theories? 65 3.2.1 Purpose of SLA theories 65 3.2.2 SLA research agendas 66 3.2.3 Research findings 69 3.3 The main theoretical families 70 3.3.1 Linguistic approaches 71 Domain of inquiry 71 Views on the nature of language 72 View of the learning process 74 View of the language learner 74 Linguistic approaches and SLA research agendas/findings 75 Conclusion: contribution of formal linguistic approaches to theory building 76 3.3.2 Cognitive approaches 77 Domain of inquiry 77 Views on the nature of language 78 View of the learning process 79 View of the language learner 80 Cognitive approaches and SLA research agendas/findings 80 Conclusion: contribution of cognitive approaches to SLA theory building 81 3.3.3 Interactionist, sociolinguistic and sociocultural approaches 82 Domain of inquiry 83 Views on the nature of language 84 View of the learning process 84 Views of the language learner 85 Interactional/sociolinguistic/sociocultural approaches and research agendas/findings 86 Conclusion: contribution of interactionist/sociolinguistic/sociocultural approaches to SLA theory building 88 3.4 Conclusion 88 4 Scope and research methodologies 89 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Biological factors 91 4.3 Cognitive factors 97 4.4 Pedagogical factors 101 4.5 Social factors 105 4.6 Conclusion 109 Part II Internal ingredients 111 Introduction to Part II 113 5 The role of the native language 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 From Contrastive Analysis to Creative Construction 116 5.3 Types of developmental influence 118 5.3.1 Relative frequency of use 118 5.3.2 Paths and rate 120 5.3.3 Conditions under which the L1 might influence the L2 120 5.3.4 Concluding notes on types of developmental influence 121 5.4 Views on the initial state 121 5.4.1 Full access 123 5.4.2 Full transfer / full access 123 5.4.3 Minimal Trees hypothesis 124 5.4.4 No direct access to UG 124 5.4.5 Concluding notes on views on the initial state 124 5.5 Approaches of the past decade 124 5.5.1 Morphosyntax 125 5.5.2 Phonology 127 5.5.3 Lexicon 128 5.5.4 Concluding notes on approaches of the past decade 130 5.6 Conclusions 130 6 Learning mechanisms and automatization 132 6.1 Introduction 132 6.2 Basic processes 133 6.2.1 Comprehension 133 6.2.2 Production 135 6.3 Memory and its development 137 6.3.1 Anderson's ACT 137 Production procedures 139 Measuring production 141 Automatization 141 6.3.2 Declarative and procedural knowledge revisited 143 M. Paradis 143 Ullman 144 6.3.3 Working memory 146 6.4 Explicit and implicit learning 150 6.4.1 Acquisition versus learning 150 6.4.2 Finer constructs 151 6.5 Conclusion 153 7 Generative approaches and the poverty of the stimulus 155 7.1 Introduction 155 7.2 Five aspects of the POS in language acquisition 157 7.2.1 Intricate domain-specific knowledge 157 7.2.2 Needles in the linguistic haystack 159 7.2.3 Uniqueness and variability 161 7.2.4 The bankruptcy of the stimulus 163 7.2.5 The narrow range of provisional non-target grammars 165 7.3 Misunderstandings surrounding the POS 167 7.3.1 Universal Grammar vs. universals of language 167 7.3.2 Learnability problems vs. specific solutions 167 7.3.3 Not all linguistic phenomena have (equally) probative value 168 7.4 A comparison of the POS in native vs. non-native language acquisition 170 7.5 Summary and conclusion 176 8 Learner-internal psychological factors 177 8.1 Introduction 177 8.2 Language attitudes and motivation 179 8.3 Language talent and language aptitude 183 8.3.1 The talented L2 learner 183 8.3.2 Working memory and short-term memory 185 8.3.3 Transfer of L1 aptitude to L2 186 8.4 Personality traits 187 8.4.1 Extraversion vs. introversion 188 8.4.2 Neuroticism vs. emotional stability 192 8.4.3 Conscientiousness 193 8.4.4 Openness-to-Experience 193 8.4.5 Risk-taking 194 8.4.6 Foreign language anxiety and trait emotional intelligence 194 8.4.7 Perfectionism and foreign language anxiety 196 8.5 Conclusion 196 9 Alphabetic literacy and adult SLA 198 9.1 Introduction 198 9.2 Impact of alphabetic literacy on adult oral native language processing 199 9.3 Research with non-alphabetically literate adults acquiring second languages 205 9.3.1 SLA research with unschooled workers in Europe 205 9.3.2 Research with adult L2 learners on alphabetic literacy and oral language processing 206 9.3.3 The Minneapolis Somali literacy study 207 Study 1: Literacy and recall of recasts 210 Study 2: Elicited imitation 211 Study 3: Grammar forms used in oral narrative 212 9.4 LESLLA research on literacy and SLA 214 9.5 Conclusion and implications for theories of SLA 218 Part III External ingredients 223 Introduction to Part III 225 10 Negotiated input and output / interaction 227 10.1 Introduction 227 10.2 A brief historical overview 228 10.3 Input, output and feedback during conversational interaction 232 10.3.1 Input 232 10.3.2 Output 235 10.3.3 Feedback 240 10.4 Factors influencing conversational interaction 242 10.4.1 Tasks and conversational interaction 243 10.4.2 Individual differences and conversational interaction 244 10.5 Conclusions and lines for further research 246 11 Second language identity construction 248 11.1 Introduction 248 11.2 Conceptual frameworks 249 11.2.1 Poststructuralism and other postfoundational perspectives 249 11.2.2 Sociocultural approaches to SLA 251 11.3 Identity categories in SLA research 253 11.3.1 Heritage learners 254 11.3.2 Multilingual learners 257 11.3.3 Gendered learners 259 11.3.4 Racialized identities 262 11.3.5 Non-native teacher identities 264 11.4 Future directions 266 11.5 Conclusion 268 12 Socialization 269 12.1 Introduction 269 12.2 Socialization: calling for a “reconceptualization of research in SLA” 269 12.2.1 The social turn in SLA research 270 12.2.2 Competing paradigms: L2 socialization versus cognitive approaches 271 12.2.3 Brief epistemological remarks on the debate between cognitive and sociocultural SLA research 272 12.2.4 Socially oriented SLA research 273 12.3 A conceptual framework for socially oriented SLA 275 12.3.1 The legacy from early influences 275 12.3.2 Social context and setting 277 12.3.3 The agency of the L2 learner 278 12.3.4 Identity and power relations 278 12.3.5 Societal integration 279 12.4 Naturalistic SLA, literacy and socialization 280 12.4.1 Background 280 12.4.2 Naturalistic data analysis 281 Managing L2 understanding 282 Responding to a social investigation 283 12.4.3 Literacy practices 285 Contrasting approaches to SL literacy 286 Cognitive research projects on L2 literacy 286 Sociocultural approaches to L2 literacy 287 12.5 Concluding remarks 287 12.5.1 Problems and difficulties within sociocultural approaches 287 Methodological and epistemological challenges 287 Relation to the issue of cognition 288 Relation to language focused research 288 12.5.2 Future directions 288 13 Variation 290 13.1 Introduction 290 13.2 Background 291 13.2.1 Variationist sociolinguistics 291 13.2.2 Variation and SLA 294 13.2.3 Sociolinguistic competence: native speaker variation speech patterns 295 13.2.4 The acquisition of native-speaker variation patterns: naturalistic and formal settings 296 13.3 Contribution of variation theory to SLA 297 13.3.1 Tense 298 13.3.2 Input 298 13.3.3 Group versus individual variation 299 13.3.4 Gender 300 13.3.5 Age 300 13.3.6 Context 301 13.3.7 Summary 302 13.4 Recent developments in variationist SLA research 302 13.4.1 Identity and variationist SLA 303 13.4.2 Identity and agency 306 13.5 Conclusion 308 14 Electronic interaction and resources 310 14.1 Introduction 310 14.2 From CALL to CMCL 312 14.3 Theoretical and methodological underpinnings 314 14.4 Encounters of the native kind 317 14.5 Varieties of CMCL 319 14.5.1 Asynchronous and synchronous CMCL 319 14.5.2 Video conferencing 321 14.5.3 Mobile devices 322 14.5.4 Web 2.0: blogs, wikis, social networking 323 14.5.5 Virtual environments 324 14.6 Corpora and SLA 326 14.6.1 Language learner corpora 326 14.6.2 Learners using corpora 327 14.6.3 Learners using corpus-based materials 328 14.6.4 The effectiveness of corpora in SLA 328 14.7 Concluding thoughts 329 Part IV Biological factors 331 Introduction to Part IV 333 15 Age-related effects 335 15.1 Introduction 335 15.2 Critical periods, maturation and experience 336 15.2.1 A categorical critical period for L2 336 15.2.2 Age effects from a gradient perspective 338 15.3 Ultimate attainment in L2A 339 15.3.1 Phonology 339 15.3.2 Morphosyntax 342 15.3.3 Processing and lexical access 344 15.4 Influences on L2A 348 15.4.1 Maturation and the brain 348 15.4.2 Influence of the native language 350 15.4.3 Cognitive resources, experience and other variables 352 15.5 Conclusion 354 16 Childhood second language acquisition 356 16.1 Introduction 356 16.2 L1 and the initial state in child L2 acquisition 359 16.3 Functional categories in child L1 and child L2 acquisition 363 16.4 Morphological variability in child L1 and child L2 acquisition 365 16.5 Comparing typical and atypical child L2 acquisition 367 16.6 Conclusion 369 17 Incomplete L1 acquisition 371 17.1 Introduction 371 17.2 Minority languages 371 17.2.1 Minority language speakers 371 17.2.2 Incomplete L1 acquisition vs. attrition 373 17.3 Profile of minority language speakers 375 17.4 The weaker language in minority language speakers 377 17.4.1 Phonetics and phonology 378 17.4.2 Vocabulary 378 17.4.3 Morphosyntax 379 17.4.4 Syntax 380 17.5 Theoretical issues in the study of incomplete L1 acquisition 384 17.5.1 Literacy and later language development 385 17.5.2 Age effects versus experience 386 17.5.3 Child-adult comparison: attrition vs. incomplete acquisition 388 17.6 Conclusion 389 18 Third language acquisition 390 18.1 General introduction: L3 390 18.2 Educational and sociolinguistic approaches 391 18.2.1 Educational approaches 391 18.2.2 Sociolinguistic approaches 395 18.3 Multicompetence and language throughout the lifespan 397 18.4 Cognitive approaches to L3 grammar acquisition 399 18.4.1 The lexicon 399 18.4.2 Syntax 403 18.4.3 Phonology 406 18.5 Discussion and conclusions 409 19 Language processing 412 19.1 Introduction 412 19.2 The bilingual mind 412 19.2.1 Lexical access in bilinguals 412 Orthographic information 413 Phonological information 414 Semantic information 414 Lexical access in sentence context 415 Lexical access: summary 416 19.2.2 Syntactic processing 417 Error production 417 Priming 417 Syntactic ambiguity 418 Crosslinguistic transfer 419 Syntactic anomalies 420 Syntactic processing: summary 420 19.3 The bilingual brain: neurolinguistic methodologies 421 19.3.1 ERPs in native, early and late bilinguals 421 ERP methodology 421 ERPs and AoA 422 ERPs and proficiency 423 ERPs and language transfer 424 ERPs and L2 learning 425 19.3.2 Neuroimaging in native, early and late bilinguals 426 Neuroimaging methodologies 426 Neuroimaging, AoA and proficiency 427 Neuroimaging and language transfer 428 Neuroimaging and L2 learning 428 19.4 Drawing conclusions from behavioral and neurolinguistic data 429 19.4.1 Lexical access and semantic representations 429 19.4.2 Syntactic processing 431 19.5 Conclusion 433 20 Affect and the brain 435 20.1 Introduction 435 20.2 Different brains are distinct 435 20.2.1 Synaptic connections 436 20.2.2 The outcomes of different brains being different 438 20.3 Stimulus appraisal system: affect and the brain 439 20.3.1 Stimulus appraisal and SLA 440 20.3.2 Stimulus appraisal and other perspectives 440 20.3.3 The neurobiology of stimulus appraisal 442 Opiates and dopamine along with the corticobulbar tracts 443 The amygdala, orbital frontal cortex and the body proper 444 Genetic and developmental influences on the neurobiology of stimulus appraisal 445 20.4 Anxiety in SLA: the view from the limbic system 446 20.4.1 The effect of anxiety on language learning 446 Evidence from language learner diaries 447 Evidence from experimental methods 448 Stimulus appraisal and anxiety 449 20.4.2 Subcortical regions implicated in anxiety 450 20.5 Discussion: implications for research 451 20.6 Conclusion 453 Part V Properties of interlanguage systems 455 Introduction to Part V 457 21 The lexicon 459 21.1 Introduction 459 21.2 Types of vocabulary knowledge and lexical storage 460 21.3 Norms of vocabulary growth 464 21.4 How words are acquired 468 21.4.1 Input and uptake of vocabulary 468 21.4.2 Frequency, repetition and vocabulary learning 469 21.4.3 Incidental and explicit learning 472 21.5 Focus on form and processing load 475 21.6 Conclusion 477 22 Semantics 479 22.1 Introduction 479 22.2 Ways of developing semantic knowledge 480 22.3 Acquiring new ways of referring 481 22.3.1 Reference to kinds 481 22.3.2 Result and process nominals 485 22.4 Acquiring aspectual systems 487 22.4.1 Acquisition of aspect in Romance languages 488 22.4.2 Japanese 489 22.4.3 Other languages 493 22.5 Feature reassembly and semantic development 494 22.6 Conclusion and perspectives 498 23 Discourse and pragmatics 500 23.1 Introduction 500 23.2 Interpersonal rhetoric 502 23.2.1 Speech acts 502 23.2.2 Conversational implicature 504 23.3 Reference 509 23.3.1 Anaphora resolution 509 23.3.2 Definiteness/indefiniteness and specificity 511 23.3.3 Deixis 514 23.4 Information structure (the syntax-discourse interface) 518 23.5 Conclusion 522 24 Morphosyntax 523 24.1 Introduction 523 24.1.1 Parameters vs. features 523 24.1.2 Approaches to features in SLA 525 24.1.3 Organization of this chapter 526 24.2 Verbal morphosyntax 526 24.2.1 Verbal inflection 527 24.2.2 Verb syntax 528 24.3 Impairment at the level of syntactic representation 532 24.4 Missing Surface Inflection 533 24.4.1 MSI in L2 English 534 24.4.2 MSI in French and German 537 24.4.3 The MSIH and Distributed Morphology 539 24.4.4 Morphological Underspecification Hypothesis 540 24.5 The Prosodic Transfer Hypothesis 541 24.6 New directions: the Feature Reassembly Hypothesis 543 24.7 Conclusion 546 25 Phonology and speech 547 25.1 Introduction 547 25.1.1 Transfer and universals 547 25.1.2 Phonology vs. phonetics 549 25.1.3 Perception and production 551 25.2 Segmental acquisition 552 25.2.1 Voicing contrasts in stop consonants 552 25.2.2 Vowel contrasts 554 25.2.3 Liquid contrasts 555 25.3 Acquisition of restrictions on syllable structure and of phonotactics 557 25.3.1 Consonant clusters within and across syllables 557 25.3.2 Restrictions on segments in the syllable coda 559 25.4 Prosodic systems: stress, pitch accent, tone and intonation 560 25.4.1 Acquisition of stress and rhythm 562 Production of L2 stress 562 Perception of L2 stress 564 25.4.2 Acquisition of tone, pitch accent and intonation 568 25.5 Conclusion 570 Part VI Models of development 573 Introduction to Part VI 575 26 Explaining change in transition grammars 578 26.1 Introduction 578 26.2 A transition theory for L2A 579 26.2.1 Two typical examples of second language performance 579 26.2.2 The need for a property and a transition theory in explaining L2 development 581 26.2.3 Online processing as a key element in development 582 26.3 O’Grady's (2005) Emergentist Model (OGE) 583 26.4 Carroll's (2001, 2007) Autonomous Induction theory (AIT) 585 26.4.1 Jackendoff's account of the language faculty 585 26.4.2 Autonomous Induction theory (AIT) 587 26.5 Modular Online Growth and Use of Language (MOGUL) framework 589 26.5.1 Sharwood Smith and Truscott: acquisition by processing 589 26.5.2 MOGUL and the transition problem 590 Acquisition by Processing theory (APT) 591 Transition in MOGUL: the case of English /b~v/ 592 When problems occur in transition: the case of English /r/~/l/ 594 26.5.3 MOGUL: nature, goals and limitations 597 26.6 Conclusion 598 27 Stagelike development and Organic Grammar 599 27.1 Introduction 599 27.2 Defining the notion of stage 600 27.3 Syntactic background - functional projections 602 27.4 Grammatical stages of development in L1 and L2 acquisition 603 27.5 Grammatical stages in research in the 1980s and onwards 609 27.5.1 Studies of L2 German word order 610 27.5.2 The Basic Variety 611 27.5.3 Finiteness linking 612 27.5.4 Processability theory 613 27.6 Organic Grammar 614 27.7 Conclusion: theoretical and practical considerations 620 28 Emergentism, connectionism and complexity 623 28.1 Introduction 623 28.2 An embodied and enactive cognition 624 28.3 Construction-based models of language: an emergent grammar 626 28.3.1 Construction grammars 626 28.3.2 An emergentist model of construction learning 628 28.3.3 Verb islands, chunking and construction generalization 629 28.3.4 Syntactic bootstrapping 630 28.4 Cognition and learning 630 28.4.1 Learning processes: intention sharing and pattern finding 630 28.4.2 Learning processes: frequency 631 28.4.3 Learning processes: perceptual saliency 631 28.4.4 Frequency, saliency and first language effects 632 28.4.5 Learning processes as emergent 633 28.5 Processability and competition 633 28.5.1 How language provides the means for its own learning 633 28.5.2 Conceptualization and meaning 633 28.5.3 Thinking for speaking: the problem of conceptual transfer 634 28.5.4 U-shaped learning and the Competition Model 636 28.6 Connectionism and complexity 637 28.6.1 Parallel processing models: the brain that learns 637 28.6.2 Parallel processing models: computer simulations 638 28.6.3 Neural nets and language learning 639 28.6.4 Chaos and complexity 641 28.7 Conclusion 643 29 Input, input processing and focus on form 645 29.1 Introduction 645 29.2 Brief historical overview of theoretical advances on input and input processing 646 29.2.1 Krashen's Input Hypothesis 646 29.2.2 Input and interaction 647 29.2.3 Input and input processing 647 29.3 Breaking down the concept of input 649 29.3.1 Levels of input 649 29.3.2 Modalities of input 650 29.3.3 Amount of input and length of utterances 650 Modified and unmodified input 651 Interactional and non-interactional input 652 Acousticially varied and acoustically consistent input 652 Naturalistic, enhanced structured input 653 Is explicit information input? 653 29.4 Input and the development of form-meaning connections 653 29.5 VanPatten's Model of Input Processing 655 29.5.1 Principle 1: The Primacy of Meaning Principle 655 29.5.2 Principle 2: The First Noun Principle 657 29.5.3 Empirical support for VanPatten's Model of Input Processing 657 29.6 Input and L2 instruction 659 29.6.1 Input enhancement 659 Input flood 660 Typographical input enhancement 661 Processing instruction and structured input 661 29.7 Conclusion: limitations and directions for future research 663 30 Sociocultural theory and the zone of proximal development 666 30.1 Introduction 666 30.2 Background 667 30.2.1 Sociocultural theory 667 Vygotsky's genetic method 667 Mediation 667 Activity theory 668 30.2.2 The zone of proximal development 669 Vygotsky's ZPD 669 The ZPD today 669 30.2.3 L2 research and the ZPD 671 30.3 L2 studies and the ZPD 672 30.3.1 The ZPD and L2 skills development 672 30.3.2 Dynamic Assessment and tutor/teacher feedback in the ZPD 676 30.3.3 Peer collaboration and the ZPD 678 30.3.4 Expanding the ZPD 683 30.4 Conclusion 686 31 Nativelike and non-nativelike attainment 688 31.1 Introduction: overview of ultimate attainment in SLA 688 31.1.1 Why is the study of L2 ultimate attainment interesting? 689 31.1.2 Focusing on what can be attained 690 31.1.3 Focusing on what is not attained 691 31.1.4 Organization of the chapter 692 31.2 Some methodological issues 693 31.2.1 The use of NS data in SLA ultimate attainment studies 693 31.2.2 Determining if a grammatical steady state has been achieved 694 31.3 What is most likely to be fully acquired? 696 31.3.1 UG-constrained syntactic feature selection 697 31.3.2 Attainment of semantic knowledge in SLA 701 31.4 Fossilization in the L2 endstate 703 31.4.1 Variability in morphological inflection 703 31.4.2 Fossilization at the interfaces 706 31.5 Conclusion 709 Appendix Examples of structured input activities 710 Third-person singular -s in L2 English 710 A. Referential activity on political views 710 B. Affective Activity on the Typical Student 711 Subjunctive in adjectival clauses in L2 Spanish 711 A. Actividad Referencial sobre lo que tenemos y lo que queremos 711 A. Referential activity on what we have and what we want 712 B. Actividad afectiva sobre la pareja ideal 713 B. Affective Activity about the perfect partner 713 Notes 715 Glossary 720 Selected references 755 Index 832 Introduction / Julia Herschensohn And Martha Young-scholten -- Part I: Theory And Practice -- Theories Of Language From A Critical Perspective / Jan Koster -- History Of The Study Of Second Language Acquisition / Margaret Thomas -- Theoretical Approaches / Florence Myles -- Scope And Research Methodologies / Melinda Whong And Clare Wright -- Part Ii: Internal Ingredients -- The Role Of The Native Language / Claire Foley And Suzanne Flynn -- Learning Mechanisms And Automatization / Richard Towell -- Generative Approaches And The Poverty Of The Stimulus / Bonnie D. Schwartz And Rex A. Sprouse -- Learner Internal Psychological Factors / Jean-marc Dewaele -- Alphabetic Literacy And Adult Sla / Elaine Tarone, Kit Hansen And Martha Bigelow -- Part Iii: External Ingredients -- Negotiated Input And Output/interaction / María Del Pilar García Mayo And Eva Alcón Soler -- Second Language Identity Construction / Elizabeth R. Miller And Ryuko Kubota -- Socialization / Georges Daniel Véronique -- Variation / Vera Regan -- Electronic Interaction And Resources / Astrid Ensslin And Cedric Krummes -- Part Iv: Biological Factors -- Age Related Effects / Julia Herschensohn -- Childhood Second Language Acquisition / Belma Haznedar And Elena Gavruseva -- Incomplete L1 Acquisition / Silvina Montrul -- Third Language Acquisition / Jason Rothman, Jennifer Cabrelli Amaro And Kees De Bot -- Language Processing / Alice Foucart And Cheryl Frenck-mestre -- Affect And The Brain / Andrea Mates And Anna Joaquin -- Part V: Properties Of Interlanguage Systems -- The Lexicon / James Milton And Giovanna Donzelli -- Semantics / Laurent Dekydtspotter -- Discourse And Pragmatics / Roumyana Slabakova -- Morphosyntax / Tania Ionin -- Phonology And Speech / Ellen Broselow And Yoonjung Kang -- Part Vi: Models Of Development -- Explaining Change In Transition Grammars / Michael Sharwood Smith, John Truscott And Roger Hawkins -- Stage-like Development And Organic Grammar / Anne Vainikka And Martha Young-scholten -- Emergentism, Connectionism And Complexity / Randal Holme -- Input, Input Processing And Focus On Form / Joe Barcroft And Wynne Wong -- Sociocultural Theory And The Zone Of Proximal Development / Amy Snyder Ohta -- Nativelike And Non-nativelike Attainment / Donna Lardiere. Edited By Julia Herschensohn, Martha Young-scholten. Includes Bibliographical References (pages 737-813) And Index.