The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology)

In this updated and expanded edition of The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, some of the world's foremost experts on expertise share their scientific knowledge of expertise and expert performance and show how experts may differ from non-experts in terms of development, training, reasoning, knowledge, and social support. The book reviews innovative methods for measuring experts' knowledge and performance in relevant tasks. Sixteen major domains of expertise are covered, including sports, music, medicine, business, writing, and drawing, with leading researchers summarizing their knowledge about the structure and acquisition of expert skills and knowledge, and discussing future prospects. General issues that cut across most domains are reviewed in chapters on various aspects of expertise, such as general and practical intelligence, differences in brain activity, self-regulated learning, deliberate practice, aging, knowledge management, and creativity. The revised handbook will remain the primary source for anyone wanting to get an updated review of the current knowledge, by providing a comprehensive review of the current knowledge about expertise in all major domains This book is for anyone interested in studying expert performance and expertise in their own domain of expertise, with its up-to-date knowledge of methods and concepts spanning forty areas Any individual interested in improving their own or their employees' performance will find in this book detailed analysis of training methods for improving performance in all major domains of expertise Half title......Page 2 Title page......Page 5 Imprints page......Page 6 Contents......Page 8 Notes on Contributors......Page 14 Acknowledgments......Page 23 Part I Introduction and Perspectives......Page 24 1 An Introduction to the Second Edition of The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance: Its Development, Organization, and Content......Page 25 Expert, Expertise, and Expert Performance: Dictionary Definitions......Page 27 Tracing the Development of Our Knowledge of Expertise and Expert Performance......Page 30 Conceptions of Generalizable Aspects of Expertise......Page 40 Individual Differences in Mental Capacities......Page 41 Expertise as the Extrapolation of Everyday Skill to Extended Experience......Page 44 Expertise as Qualitatively Different Representation and Organization of Knowledge......Page 46 Expertise as Elite Achievement Resulting from Superior Learning Environments......Page 49 Expertise as Reliably Superior (Expert) Performance on Representative Tasks......Page 51 General Comments......Page 53 General Outline of the Handbook......Page 54 Conclusion......Page 60 Author Notes......Page 63 References......Page 64 2 A Sociological/Philosophical Perspective on Expertise: The Acquisition of Expertise through Socialization......Page 72 Expertise as Performance......Page 74 Epistemic Injustice and the Limits of Attribution......Page 76 Expertise as Property......Page 78 Expertise as Real......Page 79 The Periodic Table of Expertises......Page 82 Using the Periodic Table of Expertises......Page 85 Interactional Expertise and Embodiment......Page 87 Three Dimensions of Expertise......Page 91 Summary......Page 93 References......Page 94 3 Reframing Expertise and its Development: A Lifeworld Perspective......Page 104 Introduction......Page 105 Rethinking Expert Knowledge and Expertise......Page 108 Developing Expert Performance......Page 111 Concluding Remarks......Page 116 References......Page 119 4 The Evolution of Expertise......Page 123 Introduction......Page 124 Ecological Dominance and Social Competition......Page 126 Models of Human Cognition......Page 129 Secondary Competencies and Expertise......Page 132 Expertise and Social Signaling......Page 134 Conclusion......Page 139 References......Page 140 5 Expertise in Other Animals: Canines as an Example......Page 146 Introduction......Page 147 Objective Definitions of Expertise......Page 149 Expertise as Exceptional Performance......Page 150 Expertise as a Social Construction......Page 152 Expertise as an Outcome of Prolonged Learning......Page 154 Benefits of Examining Animal Expertise......Page 156 New Methods......Page 157 Evolutionary Considerations......Page 159 Practical Benefits......Page 162 Conclusion......Page 163 References......Page 165 Part II Overview of Approaches to the Study of Expertise: Brief Historical Accounts of Theories and Methods......Page 169 6 Studies of Expertise from Psychological Perspectives: Historical Foundations and Recurrent Themes......Page 170 Introduction......Page 171 The Historical Development of Expertise Studies......Page 172 Artificial Intelligence: Expertise in the Code......Page 173 Cognitive Psychology: Expertise in the Experts......Page 176 Educational Psychology and Instructional Design: From Novice to Expert......Page 184 Recapitulation and Extensions......Page 187 Toward Generalizable Characteristics of Expertise and Expert Performance......Page 189 Expertise is Limited to a Domain of Knowledge, and Elite Performance is Mediated by Domain-Specific Skills and Adaptations......Page 190 The Intertwining of Knowledge and Basic Reasoning in Expertise......Page 193 Differences in Expertise: The Amount and Structure of Knowledge......Page 194 Expertise Involves Larger and More Integrated Cognitive Units......Page 196 Expertise Involves Deeper and More Functional Representations of Tasks......Page 198 Mechanisms Underlying Expert Performance......Page 200 From Short-Term to Long-Term Working Memory in Expertise......Page 202 Experts’ Usability of Their Knowledge......Page 203 Functionality of Expert Representations Extends to Entire Activities, Processes......Page 205 Analyzing Superior Performance......Page 207 Reflection and Mental Representations Mediate Expertise during Execution, Evaluation, and Learning......Page 208 Reasoning and Self-Monitoring in Expertise......Page 209 Routine versus Controlled Processing in Expertise......Page 211 Experience Alone is Not Sufficient for the Development of Expertise and Expert Performance......Page 214 Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 217 References......Page 221 7 Expert Systems: A Perspective from Computer Science......Page 240 AI and Expert Systems: Foundational Ideas......Page 241 A Brief History of AI and Knowledge-Based Systems......Page 247 The Emergence of the Expert Systems Focus in AI Research, 1965–1975......Page 250 Claims about Expertise Resulting from Work on Expert Systems......Page 254 Knowledge of a Domain is More Essential for Expertise than Complex Inferential Procedures for Many Tasks......Page 255 There is More to Expertise than is Captured in the Oversimplified Model of Knowledge Base + Inference Engine......Page 257 Meta-Level Knowledge about the Strategies, Contextual Cues, and Appropriateness for Using Specific Items of Knowledge is an Important Part of Expertise......Page 258 Expertise Requires Dealing with Facts about People and Things in the World that are Almost Always Incomplete and Uncertain......Page 260 Expertise Also Requires Dealing with the Uncertainty of the Knowledge and Assumptions on which Inferences Are Based......Page 261 Eliciting Expert Knowledge is not Necessarily the Same as Eliciting Tacit Knowledge......Page 263 Continued Maintenance of a Knowledge Base is a Key to Continuing Success......Page 265 Expertise Serves Many Purposes and Can be Categorized Along at Least Two Dimensions: Formal vs. Informal Knowledge and Public vs. Private......Page 267 Human Expertise is Not Always Necessary for High Performance Problem-Solving......Page 268 Expertise in Knowledge-Based Systems, and in Many Humans, is Limited to a Circumscribed Frame of Reference......Page 269 The Specialized Knowledge of Experts Often Rests on a Base of Everyday Knowledge......Page 270 Expertise is Partly Defined by Experts’ Ability to Explain Their Reasoning......Page 271 Expertise is Difficult to Quantify and is Multidimensional......Page 273 Applications of Knowledge-Based Systems......Page 275 Analysis Tasks: Diagnosis and Troubleshooting of Devices and Systems......Page 277 Process Monitoring and Control......Page 278 Synthesis Tasks: Planning and Scheduling......Page 279 Configuration of Manufactured Objects from Subassemblies......Page 280 Decision Making and Advice-Giving Tasks: Financial Decision Making......Page 281 Fraud Detection......Page 282 Procedure and Regulation Compliance......Page 283 Personalized Recommendations of Products and Services......Page 284 Some Variations in the Implementation of Expert Systems......Page 286 Conclusion......Page 288 References......Page 291 8 Developing Occupational Expertise through Everyday Work Activities and Interactions......Page 304 Prolegomenon......Page 305 Developing and Sustaining Occupational Expertise through Work Activities and Interactions......Page 310 Constituting Occupational Expertise: Canonical, Situational, and Personal Bases......Page 315 Canonical Occupational Knowledge......Page 316 Situated Manifestations of Occupational Expertise......Page 318 Personal Domains of Occupational Knowledge......Page 321 Development of Occupational Expertise through Work Activities......Page 324 The Importance of Experiencing and Practice......Page 325 Work Activities and Learning......Page 328 Conceptualizations of Learning Processes......Page 331 Supporting the Development of Occupational Expertise through Work Experiences......Page 334 The lived experience of occupations being enacted......Page 336 Providing access to knowledge that might not otherwise be learnt......Page 338 Practice Pedagogies......Page 340 Personal Epistemologies......Page 343 Developing Occupational Expertise through Everyday Work Activities and Interactions......Page 345 References......Page 348 9 Professionalism, Science, and Expert Roles: A Social Perspective......Page 362 Introduction......Page 363 Professionalism: The Sociology of Professional Groups......Page 365 The Early Years: From Professions to Professionalization......Page 367 The Discourse of Professionalism......Page 370 Professionalism and Occupational Control......Page 373 Epistemology of Professional Work......Page 376 Science......Page 381 Historical Overview......Page 382 Institutionalization......Page 385 Today’s Operating Conditions of Science......Page 388 The New Co-Production of Knowledge......Page 391 Expert Roles......Page 393 From Elitism to Interactional Expertise......Page 394 Expert Roles and the Social Division of Labor......Page 396 Two Dimensions of Expertise: Excellence and Professionalism......Page 401 Conclusion......Page 404 References......Page 406 Part III Methods for Studying the Structure of Expertise......Page 420 10 Perception in Expertise......Page 421 Introduction......Page 422 The Role of Perceptual Routines in Expertise......Page 426 Development of Specialized Functional Networks......Page 434 (How) Does Expertise Change Low-Level Perceptual Experience?......Page 438 Conclusions......Page 443 References......Page 445 11 Eliciting and Representing the Knowledge of Experts......Page 458 Introduction......Page 459 Cognitive Systems Engineering......Page 460 Expertise......Page 464 Knowledge Elicitation......Page 466 Knowledge Representation......Page 470 Design......Page 471 The Challenge......Page 473 Illustration: The UK National Health Service......Page 474 Illustration: Intelligence Analysis......Page 476 Implications: The Way Forward......Page 477 Illustration: Landmine Detection......Page 478 Illustration: Emergency Response Teams......Page 480 Commentary on the Techno-Centric Mindset......Page 482 Foundational Methods......Page 485 The Critical Decision Method......Page 486 Concept Maps......Page 488 Work Task Analysis......Page 492 Summary: Foundational Methods......Page 499 Emerging Methods......Page 500 Macrocognitive Modeling......Page 501 ShadowBoxTM......Page 507 Application Areas......Page 508 Conclusion......Page 511 References......Page 513 12 Capturing Expert Thought with Protocol Analysis: Concurrent Verbalizations of Thinking during Experts’ Performance on Representative Tasks......Page 523 Brief History of Verbal Reports on Expert Thought Processes......Page 527 Protocol Analysis: A Methodology for Eliciting Valid Data on Thinking......Page 532 Elicitation of Non-Reactive Verbal Reports of Thinking......Page 533 Validity of Verbalized Information while Thinking Aloud......Page 537 Protocol Analysis and the Expert Performance Approach......Page 540 The Original Research on Expert Memory Performance and Its Generalization......Page 541 Capturing Cognitive Processes Mediating Superior Digit-Span Performance......Page 542 The Expert Performance Approach with Protocol Analysis and Designed Experiments......Page 544 The pioneering studies of expertise in playing chess......Page 546 Mechanisms mediating higher levels of chess expertise......Page 548 Applications to Expert Performance Using Protocol Analysis in Other Domains......Page 552 Other Games......Page 553 Medicine......Page 554 Sports......Page 559 Other applications......Page 561 Conclusion......Page 562 Author Notes......Page 565 References......Page 566 13 Methods for Studying the Structure of Expertise: Psychometric Approaches......Page 579 Introduction......Page 580 General Aspects of Psychometric Approach: Predictors......Page 582 Reliability......Page 583 Validity......Page 586 Special Considerations of Measurement in the Prediction of Expert Performance......Page 589 Measurement of Change over Time......Page 590 Restriction of Range......Page 597 Base Rate Issues......Page 598 Interdependence of Performance......Page 599 Trait Predictors of Expertise......Page 601 Cognitive Traits......Page 603 Affective Traits......Page 608 Conative Traits......Page 610 Self-concept and self-efficacy......Page 611 Communality among Predictors and Trait Complexes......Page 613 Trait Complexes......Page 614 Classification Issues......Page 618 Revisiting Intra-Individual Differences......Page 620 Discussion and Challenges for Future Research......Page 622 References......Page 625 14 Studies of the Activation and Structural Changes of the Brain Associated with Expertise......Page 633 Introduction......Page 634 Cognitive Mechanisms of Expertise......Page 636 How the Brain Accommodates Expertise......Page 640 Perceptual Expertise......Page 641 Functional Brain Changes in Perceptual Expertise......Page 642 Structural Brain Changes in Perceptual Expertise......Page 650 Cognitive Expertise......Page 651 Functional Brain Changes in Cognitive Expertise......Page 652 Structural Brain Changes in Cognitive Expertise......Page 662 Motor Expertise......Page 666 Functional Brain Changes in Motor Expertise......Page 667 Structural Brain Changes in Motor Expertise......Page 671 Conclusions......Page 672 References......Page 674 Part IV Methods for Studying the Acquisition and Maintenance of Expertise......Page 688 15 Collecting and Assessing Practice Activity Data: Concurrent, Retrospective, and Longitudinal Approaches......Page 689 Introduction......Page 690 Concurrent Approaches......Page 692 Diaries/Training Logs......Page 694 Systematic Observation......Page 696 Experimental Approaches......Page 697 Retrospective Approaches......Page 699 Questionnaires......Page 700 Qualitative Interviews......Page 702 Longitudinal and Prospective Follow-Up......Page 704 Issues with Collecting and Analyzing Practice Activity Data......Page 707 Determining Reliability and Validity......Page 708 Limits to Recall......Page 710 Comparability and Generalizability of Findings......Page 712 Descriptions Versus Prescriptions......Page 714 Concluding Thoughts......Page 717 Author Note......Page 718 References......Page 719 16 Multidisciplinary Longitudinal Studies: A Perspective from the Field of Sports......Page 728 Introduction......Page 729 First Challenge: Defining Expertise......Page 732 Acquisition of Expertise......Page 734 Maintaining Expertise......Page 737 Second Challenge: Studying (the Development of) Performance and Performance Characteristics......Page 739 Specific Performance Characteristics......Page 740 Studying General Performance Characteristics......Page 745 Third Challenge: Choice of Appropriate Study Methods and Statistical Analyses......Page 747 Methodology......Page 748 From Mono-Disciplinary to Multidisciplinary and from Cross-Sectional to Longitudinal Study Designs......Page 750 Statistical Analyses in Longitudinal Studies......Page 752 Repeated (Multivariate) Analyses of (Co-)variance......Page 754 Multilevel Modeling......Page 755 Multidisciplinary Longitudinal Studies......Page 758 Concluding Remarks......Page 766 References......Page 768 17 Using Cases to Understand Expert Performance: Method and Methodological Triangulation......Page 780 Introduction......Page 781 Case Method......Page 784 Defining Cases......Page 785 Source Selection......Page 788 Abstraction Procedures......Page 790 Interpretation of Cases......Page 791 Criteria......Page 793 Controls......Page 795 Expert Performance......Page 796 Social Innovation Case Studies......Page 797 Experimental Studies of Social Innovation......Page 800 Expert Social Performance......Page 803 Cases of Leader Performance......Page 804 Experimental Studies of Leader Styles......Page 808 Expert Technical Performance......Page 810 Cases of Technical Performance......Page 811 Experimental Studies of Innovation......Page 813 Contingencies in Expert Performance......Page 815 Contingencies in Expert Performance Case Studies......Page 816 Experimental Studies of Constraints......Page 818 Conclusions......Page 820 Author Notes......Page 825 References......Page 826 18 Historiometric Methods......Page 837 Introduction......Page 838 History......Page 841 Methodological Issues......Page 845 Sampling Procedures......Page 846 Variable Definitions......Page 849 Performance Measures......Page 850 Acquisition Indicators......Page 852 Research Designs......Page 854 Cross-Sectional Designs......Page 855 Longitudinal Designs......Page 856 Mixed Designs......Page 857 Methodological Artifacts......Page 858 Empirical Findings......Page 859 Expertise Acquisition......Page 860 Overview......Page 861 Illustration......Page 865 Expert Performance......Page 868 Overview......Page 869 Illustration......Page 872 Conclusions......Page 874 References......Page 877 Part V.I Domains of Expertise: Professions......Page 891 19 Expertise in Medicine and Surgery......Page 892 Introduction......Page 893 The Institute of Medicine Report......Page 895 Simulation......Page 896 Clinical Diagnostic Reasoning......Page 897 Summary......Page 905 Approaches to Teaching Clinical Diagnostic Reasoning......Page 906 How Clinical Reasoning Develops through Education......Page 907 Curriculum Strategies to Enhance Clinical Reasoning......Page 909 Specific Instructional Strategies......Page 911 Summary......Page 914 Expertise in Surgery and the Development of Psychomotor Skills......Page 915 Objective Measurement of Technical Skills......Page 916 Simulation......Page 918 Simulation, practice, and mastery learning......Page 919 Surgical Expertise and Specificity of Practice......Page 921 Summary......Page 924 Predictors of Medical and Surgical Expertise......Page 925 Experience, Expertise, and Elite Performance......Page 927 Age and expertise in medicine......Page 928 Formal knowledge and practice measures......Page 929 Age, time, and expertise in surgery......Page 930 Summary......Page 932 Future Issues......Page 933 Management Decision Making......Page 934 Role of Emotion in Reasoning......Page 935 Situational and Structural Effects......Page 936 Conclusions......Page 937 References......Page 938 20 Expertise and Transportation......Page 960 Introduction......Page 961 People-Moving across Our Planet......Page 962 Transportation in the First Edition of the Cambridge Handbook......Page 965 Obtaining Expertise Effects Requires the Capture of the Domain of Expertise......Page 967 Experts Exhibit More Flexible Behaviors Than Do Novices......Page 970 Gaze is Less Constrained with Expertise, Unless There is a Threat......Page 973 Experts Anticipate......Page 977 Hazard Perception, and Not Vehicle Control Skills, Predicts Crash Risk and On-Road Driving Performance......Page 978 Experienced Drivers Are Superior at (Some Types of) Hazard Perception......Page 980 Minutes of Good Training on Hazard Detection Can Be Equivalent to Years of Driving Experience......Page 983 Meta-Processing Varies with Experience......Page 985 Experts Are Not Immune to Distraction......Page 987 Expert Performance Differs Based on Type of Technology......Page 988 Future Travel......Page 990 References......Page 993 21 Expertise in Professional Design......Page 1003 Introduction......Page 1004 Design Ability......Page 1005 Understanding Expertise in Design......Page 1007 Key Aspects of Expertise in Design......Page 1014 Problem Framing......Page 1015 Solution Conjecturing......Page 1017 Co-evolving Problem-Solution......Page 1019 Representations......Page 1023 Precedents......Page 1027 Apparent Weaknesses......Page 1029 Developing Expertise in Design......Page 1035 Conclusion......Page 1038 References......Page 1040 22 Toward Deliberate Practice in the Development of Entrepreneurial Expertise: The Anatomy of the Effectual Ask......Page 1046 Introduction......Page 1048 A Brief History of Entrepreneurship Research Leading up to a Focus on Expertise......Page 1049 Studies of Entrepreneurial Expertise......Page 1054 Summary of Effectuation Research......Page 1059 Purposeful Practice in Entrepreneurship......Page 1065 Toward Deliberate Practice in the Development of Entrepreneurial Expertise......Page 1068 Implications of The Ask: Purposeful Practice in Domains Characterized by Complex Indeterminate Causation......Page 1074 Agenda for Future Research......Page 1082 Experience Sampling......Page 1083 Helpfulness Experiment......Page 1084 Sequencing......Page 1086 Conclusion......Page 1087 Appendix The Venturing Instrument......Page 1088 Introduction......Page 1089 Description of the Product......Page 1090 Problem 2: Defining the Market......Page 1091 Survey #1: Internet users were allowed to download a scaled down version (game stops after 15 minutes of playing) of the prototype and were asked to fill out a questionnaire......Page 1092 Survey #2: The prototype was demonstrated at 2 Barnes and Noble and 3 Borders bookstores......Page 1093 Based on your market research, you arrive at the following cost estimates for marketing your product......Page 1094 Competition......Page 1095 References......Page 1096 23 Professional Writing Expertise......Page 1110 Introduction......Page 1111 Defining Professional Writing......Page 1112 Fundamental Writing Processes......Page 1114 Supporting Brain Regions......Page 1117 Writing Expertise......Page 1120 Verbal Ability......Page 1121 Managing the Cognitive Load......Page 1123 Domain Expertise......Page 1127 Rapid Access to Long-Term Memory......Page 1129 Managing the Emotional Challenges......Page 1130 Flow States......Page 1131 Environments, Schedules, and Rituals......Page 1133 Blocking......Page 1134 Skill Acquisition......Page 1136 Stages of Development......Page 1137 Deliberate Practice......Page 1141 The Ten-Year Rule......Page 1145 Conclusion......Page 1147 References......Page 1148 24 Expertise and Expert Performance in Teaching......Page 1161 Introduction......Page 1162 The Nature of Teaching......Page 1165 A Definition of Teaching......Page 1166 Teaching Is a System......Page 1169 Teaching Is a Cultural Activity......Page 1171 Expertise and Cultural Activities......Page 1175 Expertise in Teaching......Page 1177 Experience as a Proxy for Expertise......Page 1178 Studying What Recognized Experts Do......Page 1179 Identifying Experts Based on Student Achievement......Page 1182 The Construct of Learning Opportunities......Page 1186 Knowledge......Page 1189 Skill......Page 1192 Judgment......Page 1194 How Teachers Become Experts......Page 1196 Teachers versus Teaching as the Focus of Improvement......Page 1198 Creating the Conditions for Deliberate Practice of Teaching......Page 1201 Lesson Study as a Lab for Deliberate Practice......Page 1204 Analysis as the Key to Developing Expertise in Teaching......Page 1207 Conclusion......Page 1210 References......Page 1212 25 Expert Professional Judgments and “Naturalistic Decision Making”......Page 1224 Background and History of Naturalistic Decision Making......Page 1225 The Concept of Expertise in NDM......Page 1227 Perceptual Learning and Skills......Page 1229 Mental Models/Simulation......Page 1230 Sense of Typicality and Associations......Page 1231 Routines......Page 1232 Declarative Knowledge......Page 1233 Tacit Knowledge......Page 1234 Situation Assessment......Page 1235 Finding Leverage Points......Page 1236 Managing Uncertainty......Page 1237 Metacognition......Page 1238 NDM Frameworks......Page 1239 Recognition-Primed Decision Making (RPD)......Page 1240 Recognition/Metacognition (R/M) and RAWFS......Page 1242 Capturing and Unpacking Expertise......Page 1243 Expert Teams......Page 1245 Training for Expertise......Page 1248 Decision Skills Training......Page 1249 ShadowBoxTM: A Cognitive Tool......Page 1250 Transfer of training......Page 1251 Macrocognition: Extending the Focus of NDM......Page 1252 The Data/Frame Model of Sense-Making......Page 1254 The Flexecution Model of (Re-)planning......Page 1256 Emerging Challenges and Future Research......Page 1258 Expanding the Study of Domain Expertise......Page 1259 What Is the Role of Affect in Expert Decision Making?......Page 1260 NDM Cross-Cultural Research......Page 1262 Extending NDM Methods......Page 1263 Technology and NDM......Page 1265 Hybrid Ecologies......Page 1266 Sense-Making in the Hybrid Ecology......Page 1267 Technology Design for NDM......Page 1268 Multi-Team Systems......Page 1270 References......Page 1271 26 Skilled Decision Theory: From Intelligence to Numeracy and Expertise......Page 1292 Introduction......Page 1293 Numeracy and Decision Making Skill......Page 1295 Rationality and Normative Standards......Page 1299 Expert and Skilled Decision Making......Page 1302 Expert Performance......Page 1303 Expert Decision Making......Page 1305 General Decision Making Skill......Page 1307 Skilled Decision Theory......Page 1309 General Intelligence and Decision Making Skill......Page 1312 Decision Competency Assessment......Page 1317 Intelligence, Decisions, and Numeracy Components......Page 1322 How Numeracy Out-Predicts Fluid Intelligence......Page 1332 Simple, Powerful Decision Support......Page 1335 Efficient General Skill Training......Page 1339 Conclusions......Page 1341 Understanding Risks......Page 1344 Author Note......Page 1346 References......Page 1347 27 What Makes an Expert Team? A Decade of Research......Page 1366 Introduction......Page 1367 Chapter Aims and Organization......Page 1369 Theories of Team Effectiveness: A Brief Review......Page 1372 When Do Expert Teams Do Best?......Page 1375 Team Adaptation......Page 1378 Shared Cognition, Shared Mental Models, and Transactive Memory......Page 1381 Distinguishing between TMS and SMM......Page 1383 Current Research on Shared Cognition......Page 1387 Team Leadership......Page 1389 Team Composition......Page 1392 Virtuality......Page 1395 Current Methods Used to Investigate Expert Teams......Page 1400 The Next Ten Years: Opportunities for Future Team Research......Page 1403 Construct De-confliction......Page 1405 Fostering Expert Team Elements......Page 1409 Conclusion......Page 1412 References......Page 1414 Part V.II Domains of Expertise: Arts, Sports, Games, and Other Skills......Page 1436 28 Expertise in Music......Page 1437 Introduction......Page 1438 Increasing Performance through Practice......Page 1442 Practice: Investing the Time......Page 1443 Beyond Time: Investing the Effort......Page 1447 The Development of Musical Expertise......Page 1451 Stages and Phases......Page 1452 Cognitive Adaptations......Page 1455 Physiological Adaptations......Page 1459 Perceptual-Motor Adaptation......Page 1461 Outlook: Pushing the Limits......Page 1463 References......Page 1467 29 Brain Changes Associated with Acquisition of Musical Expertise......Page 1480 Performing Music as a Driver of Brain Plasticity......Page 1483 Brain Regions Involved in Performing Music: A Quick Overview......Page 1491 The Effects of Musical Training on Brain Function......Page 1498 The Effects of Musical Training on Brain Structure......Page 1503 De-expertise: Musician’s Dystonia as a Syndrome of Maladaptive Plasticity......Page 1511 Brain Changes Associated with Loss of Sensory Motor Control......Page 1518 Brain Plasticity as Prerequisite and Result of Expert Performance in Musicians......Page 1523 References......Page 1527 30 Expertise in Drawing......Page 1543 Introduction......Page 1544 Making Representational Depictions......Page 1546 Ways Artists Might See the World Differently......Page 1550 Psychological Explanations for Skill in Observational Drawing......Page 1554 Bottom-Up Explanations......Page 1555 Shape Constancy......Page 1558 Size Constancy......Page 1559 Summary of Bottom-Up Results......Page 1560 Top-Down Explanations......Page 1562 Domain-Specific Knowledge of Objects......Page 1563 Decision Making and Efficient Processing of Object Features......Page 1564 Visual Attention......Page 1566 Summary of Top-Down Results......Page 1567 Theoretical and Empirical Reconciliations......Page 1568 Future Directions......Page 1572 Methodological Issues......Page 1573 Conceptual Issues......Page 1577 Conclusion......Page 1581 References......Page 1583 31 Expertise in Chess......Page 1594 Expertise in Chess......Page 1595 Brief Description of the Game and the Rating System......Page 1597 Information Processing Models of Choosing a Good Move: The Trade-Offs between Knowledge and Search......Page 1599 Tracing Expertise Differences in Perception and Attention with Eye-Tracking Techniques......Page 1601 Memory Recall for Positions: Chase and Simon’s Key Results......Page 1603 Problems with the Chunking Theory Led to the Template Theory......Page 1604 Random Positions......Page 1605 New Estimates of the Vocabulary of the Master......Page 1606 Macrostructure of Search in Chess......Page 1608 Selective Search, Move Generation, and Pattern Recognition......Page 1610 High-Level Knowledge and Planning......Page 1612 Computational Models of Problem-Solving......Page 1614 Blindfold Chess......Page 1615 Risk......Page 1617 Building a Human Master......Page 1618 Learning......Page 1619 Training, education, and transfer......Page 1620 Individual Differences......Page 1621 Gender Differences......Page 1622 The Role of Deliberate Practice and Tournament Experience......Page 1624 Conclusions......Page 1629 References......Page 1631 32 Mathematical Expertise......Page 1644 Introduction......Page 1645 What Makes for Mathematical Expertise?......Page 1650 Intelligence......Page 1652 Perception......Page 1653 Memory......Page 1657 Working Memory......Page 1658 Long-Term Working Memory.......Page 1660 Domain-Specificity in Memory.......Page 1663 Management and Strengthening Memories.......Page 1664 Motivation and Instruction......Page 1667 Zeal and Inclination......Page 1668 The Role of Practice – 10,000 Hours......Page 1670 Education......Page 1672 Abacus Training......Page 1674 Genetics......Page 1676 Brain Systems for Mathematical Expertise......Page 1678 Con