The Bloomsbury Companion to Marx (Bloomsbury Companions)

"There are very few figures in history that have exerted as much and as varied an influence as Karl Marx. His work represents an unrivalled intervention into fields as various as philosophy, journalism, economics, history, politics and cultural criticism. His name is invoked across the political spectrum in connection to revolution and insurrection, social justice and economic transformation. The Bloomsbury Companion to Marx is the definitive reference guide to Marx's life and work. Written by an international team of leading Marx scholars, the book offers comprehensive coverage of Marx's: life and contexts; sources, influences and encounters; key writings; major themes and topics; and reception and influence. The defining feature of this Companion is its attention to the new directions in Marxism that animate the theoretical, scientific, and political sides of Marx's thought. Gender and the growing importance of Marxist-feminism is treated as equally important to clarifying Marx today as traditional and diverse categories of critique such as class, capital, and mode of production. Similarly, this Companion showcases the methodological and political importance of Marxism to environmentalist politics. Finally, the volume examines in detail non-European Marxisms, demonstrating the centrality of Marxist thought to political movements both within and beyond the global north. This book is the ideal research resource for anyone working on Marx and his ideas today, and as an entry point, if you are approaching Marx's thought for the first time."--Bloomsbury Publishing. Cover page......Page 1 Halftitle page......Page 2 Series page......Page 3 Title page......Page 4 Copyright page......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 List of Contributors......Page 9 Preface......Page 14 Acknowledgments......Page 18 Introduction......Page 19 Part I Key Writings A. Key Texts......Page 34 1 Introduction to a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843–1844)......Page 36 References......Page 40 2 The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844)......Page 42 References......Page 46 3 “Theses on Feuerbach” (1845–1846)......Page 48 References......Page 53 4 The German Ideology......Page 54 References......Page 58 5 The Communist Manifesto (1848)......Page 60 References......Page 65 6 The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852)......Page 66 I......Page 67 II......Page 69 References......Page 72 7 The Grundrisse (1858)......Page 74 Notes......Page 82 References......Page 85 8 A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859)......Page 90 References......Page 94 9 Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume I (1867)......Page 96 How Capital is Organized and One Way to Read it......Page 97 Part VIII: So-Called Primitive Accumulation......Page 98 Elaborating the Theory......Page 99 Notes......Page 111 Reference......Page 113 10 The Civil War in France (1871)......Page 114 References......Page 118 11 “Critique of the Gotha Program” (1875)......Page 120 References......Page 125 Part II Context B. Philosophical and Historical Context......Page 126 12 Materialism and the Natural Sciences......Page 128 References......Page 137 Bibliography......Page 138 On Definition......Page 140 Holding Back the Tide?......Page 142 Aufhebung of the Christian State......Page 147 Notes......Page 149 References......Page 150 The German Context......Page 154 Economic Liberalism......Page 155 Intellectual Critique......Page 156 Journalism as Activism......Page 157 Political Economy......Page 158 The “Social Question”......Page 160 Partnership with Engels......Page 161 Radical Liberalism......Page 162 After the Revolution......Page 163 References......Page 164 15 Philosophical Constellations......Page 166 16 Nineteenth-Century Social Theory......Page 172 Foundations: Positivism and Materialism......Page 173 Methodology: Ethnographic and Sociological......Page 176 Society as Object: The Rise of Social Evolutionism......Page 179 Notes......Page 182 References......Page 183 17 Industry, Technology, Energy......Page 186 Industry......Page 188 Technology......Page 189 Energy......Page 191 Notes......Page 194 References......Page 195 18 Engels......Page 196 Constructing Engels: From The Condition on the Working Class to The Dialectics of Nature......Page 197 Engels’s Materialism: Some Notes on Scientific Socialism......Page 201 Engels in the Twenty-First Century: A Green Engels?......Page 203 Conclusion: An Engels for the Twenty-First Century......Page 204 References......Page 205 C. Sources and Influences......Page 206 1. Marx and the Ancients......Page 208 2. Philosophical Materialisms and the Problem of Freedom......Page 209 3. Aristotle and Marx: Praxis and Critique......Page 211 3. Aristotle and Marx on the Essence of the Human “Species” and the Possibility of Alienation......Page 213 References......Page 216 The Dialectic......Page 218 Dialectical Hegelianism......Page 222 Notes......Page 228 References......Page 229 Marx and Political Economy......Page 232 Political Economy: Classical and Vulgar......Page 234 Capitalism as a Historical Mode of Production......Page 235 Civil Society . . .......Page 237 . . . and its Volatile Expansionism......Page 238 Value: The Unseen Regulator......Page 240 Distribution......Page 242 Biological Economy: The Real Dismal Science......Page 243 Ricardo’s Antinomies......Page 244 Conclusion......Page 248 References......Page 249 22 French Socialism and Communism......Page 252 References......Page 260 Introduction......Page 264 1. First Encounter: “The Union of Thinking and Speaking”......Page 265 2. Second Encounter: The Communist Party of 1848......Page 267 3. Third Encounter: The International Workingmen’s Association......Page 269 Conclusion......Page 271 References:......Page 272 Part III Key Themes and Topics D. Key Themes and Topics......Page 274 Overview......Page 276 Who is a Political Economist?......Page 277 What is Political Economy?......Page 278 Abstract and Concrete Labor......Page 280 Abstraction in Critical Theory Today?......Page 281 References......Page 282 The Logic of Accumulation......Page 284 The History of Accumulation......Page 286 Notes......Page 289 References......Page 290 26 Alienation......Page 292 References......Page 297 27 Base and Superstructure......Page 300 References......Page 305 Introduction......Page 306 1. How does Marx Introduce the Concept of Capital into Capital ?......Page 307 2. How does Marx Explain the Creation of Surplus Value and Capital on the Basis of Equivalent Exchange?......Page 308 3. How does Capital Come to Appear as “Fruit-Bearing”? Notes on the “Capital-Fetish”......Page 311 References......Page 312 29 Circulation......Page 314 Categories and Concepts for Analyzing Circulation......Page 316 Circulation and the Critique of Ideology......Page 318 Notes......Page 319 References......Page 321 Cyclical Crisis and Credit......Page 322 Secular Crisis and Unemployment......Page 325 Notes......Page 327 References......Page 328 31 Dialectics......Page 330 References......Page 335 Introduction......Page 336 Secondary Exploitation......Page 337 Debates......Page 338 Development......Page 339 References......Page 341 33 Fetishism......Page 344 Notes......Page 348 References......Page 349 34 History and Class Struggle......Page 352 References......Page 357 35 Ideology......Page 360 References......Page 366 36 Imperialism......Page 368 References......Page 373 37 Mediation......Page 374 References......Page 379 38 Mode of Production......Page 380 References......Page 384 39 Nature and Ecology......Page 386 References......Page 394 40 Primitive Accumulation......Page 396 Acknowledgements......Page 401 References......Page 402 Introduction......Page 404 Why is Profit Controversial?......Page 405 The Austro-Hungarian Revenge: The Retreat from Reality and the Assault on Marx......Page 407 References......Page 410 1. Conceptual Development......Page 412 2. Historical Varieties of Property......Page 416 Notes......Page 417 References......Page 418 Marx’s Dialectical Understanding of Religion......Page 420 Marx’s “Meta-critique” of Religion: From the Criticism of Heaven to the Criticism of Earth......Page 421 Fetishism and “Religion of Everyday Life”......Page 423 Updating and Fine-tuning Marx’s Critique of Religion......Page 425 References......Page 426 Simple and Expanded Reproduction......Page 428 Reproduction of the Capital–Labor Relation......Page 431 The Marxist-Feminist Critique......Page 432 Notes......Page 434 References......Page 435 45 Revolutionary Communism......Page 438 References......Page 443 46 Revolutionary Strategy......Page 444 Notes......Page 448 References......Page 449 47 Social Relations......Page 452 References......Page 456 48 Utopia......Page 458 References......Page 462 49 Value......Page 464 50 Work......Page 470 References......Page 474 Part IV Reception and Influence E. Marx after Marx......Page 476 51 Soviet Union and Eastern Europe......Page 478 References......Page 483 52 Latin America......Page 484 References......Page 491 53 China......Page 494 References......Page 499 I......Page 500 II......Page 502 III......Page 507 Notes......Page 509 References......Page 510 55 Western Europe......Page 512 References......Page 517 56 The Arab World......Page 518 Early Arab Marxism, or Arab Old Left Marxism: From the Early 1900s to the Late 1960s......Page 519 Arab New Left Marxism: From the 1960s to the Present......Page 520 The Recent Arab Revolts and the Future of Marxism in the Arab World......Page 521 References......Page 523 Historical Antecedents to Marxism in India......Page 526 Marxism and the Nationalist Movement (1913–1947)......Page 527 Marxism in Post-Colonial India (1947–Present)......Page 529 Indian Historiography and Philosophy......Page 530 Subaltern Studies......Page 531 References......Page 532 58 Africa......Page 534 59 North America......Page 542 References......Page 547 60 Indigenous Internationalisms......Page 548 Notes......Page 552 References......Page 553 F. Contemporary Theory and Philosophy......Page 556 I......Page 558 II......Page 561 III......Page 563 References......Page 564 62 Cultural Studies......Page 566 Early British Cultural Studies: From the 1950s to the 1960s......Page 567 Birmingham Cultural Studies: From the 1970s to the 1980s......Page 568 Post-Modern Cultural Studies: From the 1980s to the 2000s......Page 569 Emergent Cultural Studies: From the 2000s to the Present......Page 571 References......Page 572 63 Ecology and Environmentalism......Page 574 Notes......Page 578 References......Page 579 64 Gender and Feminism......Page 582 References......Page 586 65 Geography......Page 590 References......Page 593 Historical Materialism......Page 596 New Materialism......Page 597 Beyond Materialism as Critique......Page 599 References......Page 600 67 Philosophy......Page 602 References......Page 607 Characteristics of Marxian Political Economy......Page 610 Contemporary Domains of Political Economic Research......Page 613 References......Page 615 Political Marx or Marxian Critique of Politics?......Page 618 The Three Sources and Three Component Parts Revisited......Page 621 Politics and the Political......Page 626 References......Page 627 70 Psychoanalysis......Page 630 References......Page 636 71 Racism......Page 640 References......Page 644 72 Sociology......Page 646 References......Page 651 73 Technology......Page 654 References......Page 658 74 Uneven Development......Page 662 References......Page 666 Index......Page 668 Cover page 1 Halftitle page 2 Series page 3 Title page 4 Copyright page 5 Contents 6 List of Contributors 9 Preface 14 Acknowledgments 18 Introduction 19 Part I Key Writings A. Key Texts 34 1 Introduction to a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843–1844) 36 Notes 40 References 40 2 The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844) 42 Note 46 References 46 3 “Theses on Feuerbach” (1845–1846) 48 References 53 4 The German Ideology 54 References 58 5 The Communist Manifesto (1848) 60 References 65 6 The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852) 66 I 67 II 69 III 72 References 72 7 The Grundrisse (1858) 74 Notes 82 References 85 8 A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) 90 References 94 9 Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume I (1867) 96 How Capital is Organized and One Way to Read it 97 Part VIII: So-Called Primitive Accumulation 98 Elaborating the Theory 99 Notes 111 Reference 113 10 The Civil War in France (1871) 114 References 118 11 “Critique of the Gotha Program” (1875) 120 References 125 Part II Context B. Philosophical and Historical Context 126 12 Materialism and the Natural Sciences 128 References 137 Bibliography 138 13 The Christian State 140 On Definition 140 Holding Back the Tide? 142 Aufhebung of the Christian State 147 Notes 149 References 150 14 Liberalism and its Discontents 154 The German Context 154 Political Liberalism 155 Economic Liberalism 155 Intellectual Critique 156 Journalism as Activism 157 Political Economy 158 The “Social Question” 160 Partnership with Engels 161 Radical Liberalism 162 After the Revolution 163 Marx is Back! 164 References 164 15 Philosophical Constellations 166 16 Nineteenth-Century Social Theory 172 Foundations: Positivism and Materialism 173 Methodology: Ethnographic and Sociological 176 Society as Object: The Rise of Social Evolutionism 179 Notes 182 References 183 17 Industry, Technology, Energy 186 Industry 188 Technology 189 Energy 191 Notes 194 References 195 18 Engels 196 Constructing Engels: From The Condition on the Working Class to The Dialectics of Nature 197 Engels’s Materialism: Some Notes on Scientific Socialism 201 Engels in the Twenty-First Century: A Green Engels? 203 Conclusion: An Engels for the Twenty-First Century 204 References 205 C. Sources and Influences 206 19 Ancient Philosophy 208 1. Marx and the Ancients 208 2. Philosophical Materialisms and the Problem of Freedom 209 3. Aristotle and Marx: Praxis and Critique 211 3. Aristotle and Marx on the Essence of the Human “Species” and the Possibility of Alienation 213 References 216 20 Hegelianism 218 The Dialectic 218 Dialectical Hegelianism 222 Notes 228 References 229 21 Political Economy1 232 Marx and Political Economy 232 Political Economy: Classical and Vulgar 234 Capitalism as a Historical Mode of Production 235 Civil Society . . . 237 . . . and its Volatile Expansionism 238 Value: The Unseen Regulator 240 Distribution 242 Biological Economy: The Real Dismal Science 243 Ricardo’s Antinomies 244 Conclusion 248 Note 249 References 249 22 French Socialism and Communism 252 Notes 260 References 260 23 Marx’s German and British Political Encounters 264 Introduction 264 1. First Encounter: “The Union of Thinking and Speaking” 265 2. Second Encounter: The Communist Party of 1848 267 3. Third Encounter: The International Workingmen’s Association 269 Conclusion 271 References: 272 Part III Key Themes and Topics D. Key Themes and Topics 274 24 Abstraction 276 Overview 276 Who is a Political Economist? 277 What is Political Economy? 278 Abstract and Concrete Labor 280 Abstraction in Critical Theory Today? 281 References 282 25 Accumulation 284 The Logic of Accumulation 284 The History of Accumulation 286 Notes 289 References 290 26 Alienation 292 Notes 297 References 297 27 Base and Superstructure 300 Notes 305 References 305 28 Capital 306 Introduction 306 1. How does Marx Introduce the Concept of Capital into Capital ? 307 2. How does Marx Explain the Creation of Surplus Value and Capital on the Basis of Equivalent Exchange? 308 3. How does Capital Come to Appear as “Fruit-Bearing”? Notes on the “Capital-Fetish” 311 Notes 312 References 312 29 Circulation 314 Categories and Concepts for Analyzing Circulation 316 Circulation and the Critique of Ideology 318 Notes 319 References 321 30 Crisis 322 Cyclical Crisis and Credit 322 Secular Crisis and Unemployment 325 Unity of Crisis 327 Notes 327 References 328 31 Dialectics 330 References 335 32 Exploitation 336 Introduction 336 Primary Exploitation 337 Secondary Exploitation 337 Debates 338 Development 339 Conclusion 341 Notes 341 References 341 33 Fetishism 344 Notes 348 References 349 34 History and Class Struggle 352 References 357 35 Ideology 360 References 366 36 Imperialism 368 References 373 37 Mediation 374 References 379 38 Mode of Production 380 References 384 39 Nature and Ecology 386 Notes 394 References 394 40 Primitive Accumulation 396 Acknowledgements 401 Notes 402 References 402 41 Profit 404 Introduction 404 Why is Profit Controversial? 405 The Austro-Hungarian Revenge: The Retreat from Reality and the Assault on Marx 407 References 410 42 Property 412 1. Conceptual Development 412 2. Historical Varieties of Property 416 Notes 417 References 418 43 Religion 420 Marx’s Dialectical Understanding of Religion 420 Marx’s “Meta-critique” of Religion: From the Criticism of Heaven to the Criticism of Earth 421 Fetishism and “Religion of Everyday Life” 423 Updating and Fine-tuning Marx’s Critique of Religion 425 References 426 44 Reproduction 428 Simple and Expanded Reproduction 428 Reproduction of the Capital–Labor Relation 431 The Marxist-Feminist Critique 432 Notes 434 References 435 45 Revolutionary Communism 438 References 443 46 Revolutionary Strategy 444 Notes 448 References 449 47 Social Relations 452 References 456 48 Utopia 458 Notes 462 References 462 49 Value 464 50 Work 470 References 474 Part IV Reception and Influence E. Marx after Marx 476 51 Soviet Union and Eastern Europe 478 References 483 52 Latin America 484 Notes 491 References 491 53 China 494 References 499 54 Japan 500 I 500 II 502 III 507 Notes 509 References 510 55 Western Europe 512 Notes 517 References 517 56 The Arab World 518 Early Arab Marxism, or Arab Old Left Marxism: From the Early 1900s to the Late 1960s 519 Arab New Left Marxism: From the 1960s to the Present 520 The Recent Arab Revolts and the Future of Marxism in the Arab World 521 Notes 523 References 523 57 India 526 Historical Antecedents to Marxism in India 526 Marxism and the Nationalist Movement (1913–1947) 527 Marxism in Post-Colonial India (1947–Present) 529 Indian Historiography and Philosophy 530 Subaltern Studies 531 Conclusion 532 References 532 58 Africa 534 59 North America 542 References 547 60 Indigenous Internationalisms 548 Notes 552 References 553 F. Contemporary Theory and Philosophy 556 61 Literature and Culture 558 I 558 II 561 III 563 References 564 62 Cultural Studies 566 Early British Cultural Studies: From the 1950s to the 1960s 567 Birmingham Cultural Studies: From the 1970s to the 1980s 568 Post-Modern Cultural Studies: From the 1980s to the 2000s 569 Emergent Cultural Studies: From the 2000s to the Present 571 Notes 572 References 572 63 Ecology and Environmentalism 574 Notes 578 References 579 64 Gender and Feminism 582 References 586 65 Geography 590 References 593 66 Materialisms 596 Mattering Mind vs. Minding Matter 596 Historical Materialism 596 New Materialism 597 Beyond Materialism as Critique 599 References 600 67 Philosophy 602 References 607 68 Political Economy 610 Characteristics 610 Characteristics of Marxian Political Economy 610 Contemporary Domains of Political Economic Research 613 References 615 69 Political Theory 618 Political Marx or Marxian Critique of Politics? 618 The Three Sources and Three Component Parts Revisited 621 Politics and the Political 626 References 627 70 Psychoanalysis 630 Note 636 References 636 71 Racism 640 References 644 72 Sociology 646 Notes 651 References 651 73 Technology 654 References 658 74 Uneven Development 662 References 666 Index 668 Preface / Wolfgang Fritz Haug -- A. Key Texts -- 1. Introduction To A Critique Of Hegel's Philosophy Of Right (1843-44) / Jerilyn Sambrooke Losch -- 2. The Economic And Philosophical Manuscripts Of 1844 (1843-1844) / Judith Grant --3. Theses On Feuerbach (1845-1846) / Andrew Pendakis -- 4. The German Ideology / Anna Kornbluh -- 5. The Communist Manifesto (1848) / Peter Lamb -- 6. The Eighteenth Brumaire Of Louis Bonaparte (1852) / Gavin Walker -- 7. The Grundrisse (1858) / Nick Nesbitt -- 8. A Contribution To The Critique Of Political Economy (1859) / Simon Choat -- 9. Capital: A Critique Of Political Economy, Volume I (1867) / Harry Cleaver -- 10. The Civil War In France (1871) / Franco Bifo Berardi -- 11. Critique Of The Gotha Program (1875) / Andrew Pendakis -- B. Philosophical And Historical Context -- 12. Materialism And Natural Sciences / Maurizia Boscagli -- 13. The Christian State / Roland Boer -- 14. Liberalism And Its Discontents / Terrell Carver -- 15. Philosophical Constellations / Christian Thorne -- 16. Nineteenth-century Social Theory / Corbin Hiday -- 17. Industry, Technology, Energy / Robert Johnson -- 18. Engels / Jordan Kinder -- C. Sources And Influences -- 19. Ancient Philosophy / Aaron Jaffe And Cinzia Arruzza -- 20. Hegelianism / Andrew Cole -- 21. Political Economy / Radhika Desai -- 22. French Socialism And Communism / Jonathan Beecher -- 23. Marx's German And British Political Encounters / William Clare Roberts -- D. Key Themes And Topics -- 24. Abstraction / Leigh Claire La Berge -- 25. Accumulation / Sean O'brien -- 26. Alienation / Tim Bewes -- 27. Base And Superstructure / Edgar Illas -- 28. Capital / Elena Louisa Lange -- 29. Circulation / Atle Mikkola Kjøsen -- 30. Crisis / Joshua Clover -- 31. Dialectics / Carolyn Lesjak -- 32. Exploitation / Matt Cole -- 33. Fetishism / James Penney -- 34. History And Class Struggle / Peter Hitchcock -- 35. Ideology / Tanner Mirrlees -- 36. Imperialism / Tanner Mirrlees -- 37. Mediation / Ruth Jennison -- 38. Mode Of Production / Jason Read -- 39. Nature And Ecology / Philip Campanile And Michael Watts -- 40. Primitive Accumulation / Jordy Rosenberg -- 41. Profit / Alan Freeman -- 42. Property / Christian Schmidt -- 43. Religion / Jan Rehmann -- 44. Reproduction / Amy De'ath -- 45. Revolutionary Communism / Peter Hudis -- 46. Revolutionary Strategy / Peter Hallward -- 47. Social Relations / Kevin Floyd -- 48. Utopia / Gerry Canavan -- 49. Value / Mathias Nilges -- 50. Work / David Ravensbergen -- E. Marx After Marx -- 51. Soviet Union And Eastern Europe / Joe Grim Feinberg -- 52. Latin America / Emilio Sauri -- 53. China / Rebecca Karl -- 54. Japan / Gavin Walker -- 55. Western Europe / Jan Kandiyali -- 56. The Arab World / Jaafar Aksikas -- 57. India / Dhruv Jain -- 58. Africa / Priya Lal -- 59. North America / Tanner Mirrlees -- 60. Indigenous Internationalisms / Deena Rymhs -- F. Contemporary Theory And Philosophy -- 61. Literature And Culture / Sarah Brouillette -- 62. Cultural Studies / Jaafar Aksikas -- 63. Ecology And Environmentalism / Danijela Dolenec -- 64. Gender And Feminism / Leopoldina Fortunati -- 65. Geography / Matt Huber -- 66. Materialisms / David Chandler -- 67. Philosophy / Panagiotis Sortiris -- 68. Political Economy / Justin Paulson -- 69. Political Theory / Bruno Bosteels -- 70. Psychoanalysis / A. Kiarina Kordela -- 71. Racism / Barbara Foley -- 72. Sociology / Samir Gandesha -- 3. Technology / Mckenzie Wark -- 74. Uneven Development / Harry Harootunian. Edited By Jeff Diamanti, Andrew Pendakis And Imre Szeman. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. "There are very few figures in history that have exerted as much and as varied an influence as Karl Marx. His work represents an unrivalled intervention into fields as various as philosophy, journalism, economics, history, politics and cultural criticism. His name is invoked across the political spectrum in connection to revolution and insurrection, social justice and economic transformation.The Bloomsbury Companion to Marx is the definitive reference guide to Marx's life and work. Written by an international team of leading Marx scholars, the book offers comprehensive coverage of Marx's: life and contexts; sources, influences and encounters; key writings; major themes and topics; and reception and influence.The defining feature of this Companion is its attention to the new directions in Marxism that animate the theoretical, scientific, and political sides of Marx's thought. Gender and the growing importance of Marxist-feminism is treated as equally important to clarifying Marx today as traditional and diverse categories of critique such as class, capital, and mode of production. Similarly, this Companion showcases the methodological and political importance of Marxism to environmentalist politics. Finally, the volume examines in detail non-European Marxisms, demonstrating the centrality of Marxist thought to political movements both within and beyond the global north.This book is the ideal research resource for anyone working on Marx and his ideas today, and as an entry point, if you are approaching Marx's thought for the first time."--Site de l'éditeur Written by an international team of leading Marx scholars, this is the definitive reference guide to Marx's life and work for anyone studying, researching or working on his ideas today. The defining feature of this companion is its attention to new directions in Marxism. Gender and the growing prominence of Marxist-feminism are treated as equally important within the Marxist conceptual canon as traditional categories of critique such as class, capital, and mode of production. Similarly, it showcases the importance of Marxism to environmentalist politics and examines non-European Marxisms in detail, demonstrating the centrality of Marxist thought to political movements beyond the global North