The Birka warrior : the material culture of a martial society

Doctoral Thesis in Archaeological Science 2006, Stockholm University. This is a study of martial material culture in the context of the Viking Age warrior of Birka, Sweden. The aim is to establish the role, function and affiliation of the Birka warrior and thereby place Birka on the power-political map of the 10th century. The study is based on the excavations of the fortified structures, particularly the Garrison, at the trading post of Birka as well as the extensive remains of material culture deriving from these investigations. A starting hypothesis is that an analysis of material culture constitutes a way of mapping social structures and that style and iconography reflect cultural groups, contacts and loyalties. Based on the case studies of six papers, the synthesis deals with questions of the work and world view of the warriors, as too their relation to their contemporary counterparts in eastern and western Europe. Questions are raised concerning the value and function of symbols in a martial context where material culture reflects rank, status and office. In defining the Birka warrior’s particular stylistic expression, a tool is created and used in the search for contacts and affiliations reflected through the distribution patterns. The results show close contacts with the eastern trading posts located on the rivers Volga and Dnjepr in Ancient Russia. It is stated that these Rus’ trading posts, essentially inhabited by Northmen, shared a common cultural expression that was maintained throughout a vast area by exceptionally close contacts. It is suggested that a particular stylistic expression developed in these Rus’ trading places containing elements of mainly Scandinavian, Steppe nomadic and Byzantine origin. In conclusion, the results of this thesis show that the warriors from Birka’s Garrison had a share in the martial development of contemporary Europe but with their own particular traits. Close relations with the eastern trade route and contact with the powerful Byzantine Empire were enjoyed. As a pointer for future research, it is wondered what organisational form the close-knit structure of the Rus’ trading posts actually took, keeping the subsequent guilds of medieval Europe in mind. The fall of the Garrison, as of Birka, corresponds with the establishment of Christianity in the region. Such changes were not limited to Central Sweden but part of a greater process where a new political structure was developing, better anchored in local concerns. 1. INTRODUCTION 9 Terminology 10 THESIS STRUCTURE AND RESULTS 12 Case studies – papers I–VI 12 CONTEXT 14 Birka and its military structures – archaeological background 16 The Eastern connection 17 2. WEAPONS, WARFARE AND CULTURAL EXPRESSION 22 THE PACIFIED PAST 22 MILITARISED SOCIETY 24 The Retinue system – and the mercenary 26 The Impact of martial society – the honourable warrior 27 Warfare 30 EXPRESSING CULTURE AND IDENTITY 33 Defining style 34 The issue of identity 36 DIFFERENCES IN EXPRESSION – THE GARRISON IN CONTRAST TO THE GRAVES 37 3. ARTEFACT, CONTEXT AND DISTRIBUTION 40 PARTICULAR DESIGN AND PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION 40 Material culture in the light of archaeological science 42 4. ON THE MARTIAL SIDE OF BIRKA 46 FORTIFICATIONS 48 WORK AND WORLD VIEW OF THE WARRIORS 53 Personal and professional 53 The Dress and equipment of the Birka warrior 54 Organisation and training 61 FIGHTING TECHNIQUES IN RELATION TO THE FORTIFICATIONS OF BIRKA 66 Dominance and defence 66 5. RUS’, VARANGIANS AND NORTHMEN 71 BIRKA AS AN ANOMALY – AND ANALOGY 71 Hedeby and the Danish ring fortresses 71 Eastern analogies 75 RUS’ IDENTITY 78 CREATING A CULTURAL EXPRESSION 81 A typical Rus’ stylistic expression? 82 6. THE WARRIORS AND THE BIRKA CONSTRUCT IN THE 10TH CENTURY 87 AT CLOSE RANGE 88 Birka 88 The warriors 89 Rus’ 90 THE WIDER CONTEXT 91 Placing Birka on the power-political map 91 A change in power-structure 92 The End 93 7. SUMMARY 94 THE BIRKA WARRIOR – the material culture of a martial society 94 REFERENCES 98