The Biology of Apples and Pears (The Biology of Horticultural Crops)

This comprehensive reference on all aspects of pomology at the organ, tree and orchard level describes the main varieties and rootstocks, and the factors controlling their growth, cropping, fruit quality, storage life, fertilizer and irrigation needs. It emphasizes the principles underlying modern high-density planting and the production of fruits in environments ranging from temperate to tropical. The book will be suitable for fruit farmers and technical advisors as well as scientific researchers and students of pomology and horticulture. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Series-title......Page 4 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Preface......Page 13 Acknowledgements......Page 14 The special characteristics of apple and pear production: setting the scene for their scientific study......Page 15 References......Page 17 Apples and pears in the wild and in prehistory......Page 18 Apples and pears in medieval and pre-industrial times......Page 19 Apple and pear production in the modern era......Page 20 APPLE PRODUCTION......Page 21 PEAR PRODUCTION......Page 24 Trade in fresh apples......Page 27 Apple and pear products......Page 28 Climatic conditions in major centres of production......Page 31 References......Page 34 Taxonomy......Page 36 The place of cultivars in apple and pear production......Page 41 Apple scion cultivars......Page 43 Apple cultivar fruit quality......Page 45 Apple cultivar fruit storage potential and shelf life......Page 47 Apple cultivar tree vigour and growth habit......Page 48 Disease resistance of apple cultivars......Page 49 Apple cultivar requirements re length of growing season......Page 50 Apple cultivars for cold-winter areas......Page 51 Major commercial cultivars of apple......Page 52 Apple rootstocks......Page 60 Modern selection and breeding programmes......Page 61 Control of scion vigour......Page 63 Effects on precocity of cropping......Page 66 Effects on yield to tree size ratio......Page 69 Size......Page 72 Colour......Page 74 Sugar and acid content......Page 75 Effects on fruit maturity and storage......Page 76 Resistance to temperature stresses......Page 77 Resistance to soil moisture stress......Page 78 Resistance to pests and diseases......Page 79 Major apple rootstocks......Page 82 European-type pear scion cultivars......Page 87 Asian pear cultivars......Page 89 Rootstocks for Asian pears......Page 90 References......Page 91 Introduction......Page 98 Root initiation......Page 99 JUVENILITY FACTORS......Page 103 SCLERIFICATION......Page 105 WOUNDING......Page 106 EFFECTS OF BUDS AND LEAVES......Page 107 Auxins, co-factors and inhibitors......Page 108 Gibberellins......Page 109 SEASON OF COLLECTION OF WINTER CUTTINGS......Page 110 ETIOLATION AND BLANCHING......Page 111 HUMIDITY AND INTERNAL WATER STATUS......Page 112 Root growth in the nursery......Page 113 Rooting during orchard establishment......Page 114 Orchard tree root systems......Page 116 Anaerobiosis......Page 118 Mechanical impedance......Page 119 Soil moisture deficits......Page 120 Effects of grass competition and soil management......Page 121 EFFECTS OF SHOOTS AND FRUITS......Page 122 Genotype effects......Page 123 Root death and root system renewal......Page 124 Anchorage......Page 125 Water uptake......Page 126 Nutrient uptake......Page 127 NITROGEN......Page 128 Production of seedling rootstocks......Page 129 References......Page 130 Formation of the graft union......Page 140 Union formation in T-budding and chip budding......Page 143 Incompatibility......Page 145 Methods of double working......Page 148 Effects of temperature on grafting and budding......Page 149 Effects of height of budding or grafting on scion vigour and cropping......Page 150 Effects of interstocks on root and shoot growth and cropping......Page 151 References......Page 152 Mechanisms of rootstock and interstock effects on vigour......Page 155 Conclusion and comments......Page 166 References......Page 167 Buds......Page 171 Bud dormancy......Page 174 Apical dominance......Page 175 Other types of correlative inhibition......Page 177 AUXINS AND CORRELATIVE INHIBITION......Page 179 GIBBERELLINS AND CORRELATIVE INHIBITION......Page 181 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON APICAL DOMINANCE......Page 182 TREATMENT OF ORCHARD TREES......Page 183 Introduction......Page 185 Cessation of growth and bud formation......Page 186 Development of deep dormancy, endodormancy or rest......Page 187 Temperature effects on emergence from dormancy......Page 190 EFFECTS OF ROOTSTOCK ON SCION CHILLING AND GDH REQUIREMENTS......Page 192 Chilling requirements of lateral buds......Page 193 DEVELOPMENT OF ENDODORMANCY......Page 194 CYTOKININS AND SEASONAL BUD DORMANCY......Page 195 CHANGES IN STATE OF WATER DURING DORMANCY......Page 196 SELECTION AND BREEDING OF ADAPTED CULTIVARS......Page 197 MODIFYING THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT......Page 199 CHEMICAL INDUCTION OF BUDBREAK......Page 200 Use of reserves in shoot growth......Page 201 Effects of light......Page 203 Effects of plant hormones......Page 204 Effects of other plant parts on shoot extension......Page 206 Effects of bark ringing or girdling......Page 208 Effects of pruning......Page 209 Cultivar differences in shoot growth......Page 210 Effects of rootstocks on shoot growth......Page 212 Secondary thickening in relation to trace buds and to branches......Page 213 References......Page 214 Leaf anatomy and morphology......Page 224 Leaf production and growth......Page 227 Leaf senescence and shed......Page 232 Individual tree and orchard leaf area......Page 233 Effects of light interception and of within-tree shade......Page 235 Leaf transmittance and reflectance......Page 237 Foliage clumping......Page 238 Canopy light interception and distribution......Page 239 Trunk cross-sectional area and light interception......Page 246 References......Page 247 Photosynthesis......Page 251 Stomatal conductance and photosynthesis......Page 253 Light response curves......Page 254 Effects of temperature......Page 255 Effects of flooding......Page 256 Effects of leaf type, history and structure......Page 257 Effects of sink activity......Page 260 Daily pattern of photosynthesis......Page 261 Photosynthesis by flowers, fruits and stems......Page 262 Respiration......Page 263 Respiration of the above-ground framework......Page 264 Leaf respiration......Page 265 Fruit respiration......Page 266 Daily and seasonal patterns......Page 267 Measured effects of light and temperature......Page 269 Source–sink relationships and carbohydrate partitioning......Page 270 Net carbon exchange and orchard productivity......Page 274 References......Page 276 Juvenility......Page 282 Initiation of flowering......Page 283 Differentiation of the growing point......Page 285 Effects of fruits on flowering......Page 287 Effects of leaves on flowering......Page 289 Effects of shade and light on flowering......Page 290 Effects of shoot type and pruning on flowering......Page 291 Cultivar differences in flowering......Page 292 Plant hormone and growth regulator effects on flowering......Page 293 Nitrogen effects on flowering......Page 294 Plant virus effects on flowering......Page 295 Temperature effect on flowering and flowers......Page 296 Pollen production......Page 300 Pollen transfer......Page 301 Pollen germination and pollen tube growth......Page 302 Incompatibility......Page 303 Female flower fertility......Page 306 Fruit set......Page 308 The abscission process......Page 309 Effects of seeds on fruit shed......Page 311 Parthenocarpy......Page 313 Ethylene and fruit set......Page 314 Effects of shade and photosynthesis on fruit set......Page 315 Effects of fruit and shoot competition on set......Page 316 Temperature effects on set......Page 317 Cultivar and strain differences in fruit set......Page 319 Cell division......Page 320 Overall fruit growth......Page 321 EFFECTS OF THE PREVIOUS GROP......Page 322 EFFECTS OF PRE-BLOSSOM TEMPERATURES......Page 323 EFFECTS OF SEEDS AND PLANT HARMONES......Page 324 SHADE AND CARBOHYDRATE RELATIONSHIPS......Page 325 EFFECT OF FRUIT THINNING......Page 326 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE......Page 328 EFFECTS OF WATER STRESS AND IRRIGATION......Page 329 EFFECTS OF GENOTYPE......Page 330 The apple skin......Page 331 EFFECTS OF GENOTYPE ON RED COLOUR DEVELOPMENT......Page 333 SHADE EFFECTS ON COLOUR......Page 334 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON COLOUR......Page 335 EFFECTS OF COVERING FRUITS DURING DEVELOPMENT......Page 336 Fruit russeting and cracking......Page 337 References......Page 339 Fruit sensory quality......Page 355 Texture......Page 356 Sugar and acid content......Page 357 Physical properties......Page 358 Ethylene evolution......Page 359 Starch and sugar content......Page 361 Readiness for harvest......Page 363 Control of ripening and senescence......Page 364 Control of respiration......Page 366 Effects of ethylene......Page 368 CONTROL OF SYNTHESIS......Page 370 CONTROL OF ACCUMULATION......Page 371 Calcium and fruit eating-quality......Page 372 Calcium and cell wall and membrane characteristics......Page 373 Calcium, respiration and ethylene production......Page 374 Calcium and physiological disorders......Page 375 Supply by the soil......Page 376 Uptake by the roots......Page 377 Upward movement......Page 378 Flux into the fruits......Page 379 Surface application to the fruits......Page 383 Cultivar effects on fruit Ca level......Page 384 Other nutrients and fruit eating-quality......Page 385 Recommended reading......Page 386 References......Page 387 Nutrient requirements......Page 398 Magnesium (Mg)......Page 401 Copper (Cu)......Page 402 Nitrogen nutrition......Page 403 Upward movement and accumulation in leaves......Page 404 Storage over winter......Page 405 Mobilization in spring......Page 406 Foliar application of nitrogen......Page 407 Phosphorus nutrition......Page 408 Potassium nutrition......Page 409 Magnesium nutrition......Page 410 Manganese nutrition......Page 411 Boron nutrition......Page 412 Iron nutrition......Page 413 Zinc nutrition......Page 415 Effects of aluminium on nutrition......Page 416 Orchard management and tree nutrition......Page 418 Effects of herbicide use......Page 419 Effects of water stress and irrigation: fertigation......Page 421 References......Page 423 Introduction......Page 429 Soil water availability......Page 430 Evaporation (E)......Page 431 Evapotranspiration by a standard reference crop (ET)......Page 432 Evapotranspiration by orchards......Page 433 Basic concepts in tree water relations......Page 434 Water uptake and flow through roots......Page 436 Root signals controlling leaf growth and stomatal behaviour......Page 439 Stem water relations......Page 440 BASIC MECHANISMS......Page 441 EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE......Page 442 EFFECTS OF LIGHT......Page 443 EFFECTS OF LEAF–AIR HUMIDITY GRADIENT......Page 444 Control of leaf water potential (Psi 1)......Page 445 Control of leaf osmotic (Psi) and turgor (Psi) potential......Page 446 Fruit water relations......Page 447 Integrated effects of water stress......Page 449 Maintenance (depletion) irrigation......Page 451 Trickle irrigation......Page 453 Deficit irrigation......Page 454 Over-tree irrigation for temperature and humidity control......Page 455 References......Page 456 Virus and MLO diseases......Page 462 Apple chat fruit disease......Page 463 Pear decline......Page 464 Fire blight......Page 465 CONTROL OF THE BLIGHT......Page 468 Fungal diseases......Page 470 Apple mildew......Page 471 Apple scab......Page 472 Collar rot and fruit rot......Page 473 Storage rots......Page 474 Aphids......Page 475 Mites......Page 476 Replant problems......Page 477 EFFECTS OF PREVIOUS CROPS......Page 478 Actinomycetes......Page 479 CONTROL MEASURES......Page 480 References......Page 481 Propagation in vitro......Page 487 Genetic transformation......Page 489 Rol gene transfer......Page 490 Gene transfer or resistance to fungi......Page 491 Use of transformed plants......Page 492 References......Page 493 Cultivar Index......Page 497 General Index......Page 499 Biology Of Apples And Pears Is A Comprehensive Reference Book On All Aspects Of Pomology At The Organ, Tree And Orchard Level. It Provides Detailed Information On Propagation, Root And Shoot Growth, Rootstock Effects, Canopy Development In Relation To Orchard Design, Flowering, Pollination, Fruit Set, Fruit Growth, Fruit Quality Factors And Quality Retention In Store. It Also Deals With Mineral Nutrition, Water Relations And Irrigation, Diseases And Pests, And Biotechnology. The Book Emphasizes The Scientific Basis Of Modern Tree And Orchard Management, And Fruit Storage. It Describes Key Cultivar Differences And Their Physiology And Genetics, And Environmental Effects And Cultivar X Environment Interactions In Tropical And Subtropical As Well As Temperate Zone Conditions. It Is Written For Fruit Growers, Extension Workers, Plant Breeders, Biotechnologists And Storage And Crop Protection Specialists, As Well As For Researchers And Students Of Pomology And Horticulture.--jacket. 1. The Growing Of Apples And Pears -- 2. Apples And Pears And Their Relatives -- 3. Apple And Pear Root Systems: Induction, Development, Structure And Function -- 4. The Graft Union, Grafting And Budding -- 5. Mechanisms Of Rootstock And Interstock Effects On Scion Vigour -- 6. The Shoot System -- 7. Leaves, Canopies And Light Interception -- 8. Photosynthesis, Respiration, And Carbohydrate Transport, Partitioning And Storage. John E. Jackson. Includes Bibliographical References And Indexes. Biology of Apples and Pears is a comprehensive reference book on all aspects of pomology at the organ, tree and orchard level for researchers, students, fruit farmers and technical advisors. It describes the production of fruit with regard to key commercial factors, and under both temperate and tropical environmental conditions