The Berbers of Morocco : A History of Resistance

"From the Rif War to the rebellion of 1958, the Berbers (Imazighen) have played a central role in the history of Moroccan resistance to colonialism in the twentieth century. This book provides an in-depth overview of Berber resistance to the French campaigns of 'Pacification', and the subsequent struggle over Berber identity in the independence era. Deeply steeped in Berber history and culture, the author traces the major and minor engagements between French forces and the Berbers in revealing detail, using previously unavailable sources. Relying on a wealth of oral sources and extensive field work, it provides the most complete history to date of one of the most important Berber communities in North Africa."-- Provided by publisher Cover page 1 Halftitle page 2 Title page 4 Copyright page 5 Series page 6 Dedication 8 Contents 10 Illustrations and Maps 12 Preface 15 Introduction 18 1 Berber Origins 22 The problem stated 22 Myth and legend 23 Archaeological and historical theories 24 2 From Carthage to Islam 26 The Berbers and the Pax Romana 26 The riddle of the Kasbahs 27 3 Dynasts versus Heretics 32 The Berghaouata 33 The Senhaja princedom of Sijilmassa 33 An Atlas heretic stronghold: Qala‘at El-Mehdi 34 Almoravid intervention 35 4 Triumph of the Atlas Berbers 38 5 Makers of Mayhem: Beni Hilal and Ma’qil 44 Almohad decline 45 Worms in the Almohad woodwork 45 Almohad debacle 46 Nomad takeover 49 6 Atlas Saints and Mountain Kings 52 Start of the northwesterly push 52 Seksawa heyday 53 Lalla ‘Aziza and ‘Amr Hintati 55 Saints and robber barons 56 The Sa’adi sultans 57 “Bum Hully,” the would-be mahdi 58 7 Senhaja Revival 60 The role of Zaouit Ahansal 60 Driving force behind the Senhaja push 63 The zaouia of Dila’ 65 Sharifian contenders: The ‘Alawids 66 8 Scourge of the Berbers 68 Dila’ destroyed 68 Enter Moulay Ismaïl 69 Attempted Dila’yin revival 69 Ismaïl’s confrontation with the Ayt ‘Atta 70 Showdown in the Fazaz 72 9 Transition and Recovery 74 The marabout of Tasaft 75 Qayd Ou-Barka and the Ayt Yoummour 79 An English renegade at large in the Atlas 80 10 Berber Backlash 82 Black goats and white rams 82 Moulay Yazid and the Imhiwash 83 Moulay Yazid and the power vacuum 85 Turmoil on the Atlas marches 85 Struggle for the upper Moulouya 87 Moulay Sliman: A peripatetic sultan 87 The Battle of Lenda (or “Zaïan incident”) 90 11 Dawn of the Great Qayd Era 96 From village chief to village bully 96 Bringing to book tribes and marabouts 98 The rise of Moha ou Hammou Azayyi 100 Punishing unruly tribes 101 “The sultan of the mountains” 102 Amhaoush and the Aghbala ambush 103 Moulay Hassan’s last campaign 105 12 The Foreign Threat 108 Morocco in peril 110 Saints and warriors 112 History in dispute 113 13 The Start of Morocco’s “Thirty Years’ War” 118 Prestige of the hills: 1) Action at Ksiba 119 Prestige of the hills: 2) Battle of El-Herri 120 Prestige of the hills: 3) The Khenifra convoys 122 14 The Defense of Jbel Fazaz 126 Bekrit beleaguered 127 Ras Tarsha and the Koubbats 128 End of play in Middle Atlas 129 15 Stemming the Tide in Southeast Morocco 132 Enter the adventurers 135 Checkmate in Tafilalt 136 The Great Rebellion 137 Belqasm’s arbitrary takeover 138 16 Great Qayd versus Marabout 140 Tribal warfare on the Glaoua marches 141 A blow to Glaoui prestige 143 From Azilal to Waouizaght 145 17 Between Oum Rbia’ and Moulouya: Failure of the Marabouts 148 In-fighting among the marabouts 148 Zaïan cavalry versus mountain tribesmen 150 Rather death than dishonor 151 Inaccessible Tounfit 153 18 Bitter Battles Around Jbel Tishshoukt 156 Four warlike tribes 156 Saving Skoura from the French (1917) 158 “Under the high peak of Tishshoukt” 159 Further campaigning in Tache de Taza: 1923 season 160 19 The Rif War (1921–7)1 166 Opening skirmishes 167 Spectacular victory of Anoual 169 The Rifian off ensive: The battles for Fez and Taza 170 Turning point of the war? 172 War on two fronts 173 Winter of 1925–6 175 End of the Rif republic 176 20 Phoney War on the Atlas Front (1926–9) 178 The politicals at work 179 Native Affairs officers: positive and negative angles 182 A conquest of hearts and minds? 184 Terror on Tishshoukt: Prelude to surrender 185 Sidi Raho’s last stand on Bou Iblan 187 Berber attempts at containing the “oil stain policy’ 193 21 Reckless Raiders Rule the Roost (1927–34) 196 Ou-Skounti: Charismatic diehard chief 198 wi n-iwaliwn: A fresh Berber victory20 201 Ou-Skounti in Yahya-land 203 Tafilalt takeover 205 Fierce firefight at Ifegh 207 Raid and counter-raid: The southern sector 208 Raid and counter-raid: The Atlas front 209 22 The Opening Rounds of the Atlas Endgame: Ayt Ya’qoub to Tazizaout (1929–32) 214 Into the uncharted Berber borderlands 214 Mountain diehards: Ayt Hadiddou and Ayt Sokhman 215 Capua of the borderlands 218 Desperate battle at Ayt Ya’qoub 219 Neutralizing the Oued L‘abid salient 222 In defense of Yahya-land 223 Towards Ayt Hadiddou country 226 23 Heroic Defense of Tazizaout 230 “A silver bullet my father left me” 230 ‘Hold on steadfastly!” 232 Battle for “Cedar Pinnacle” 235 “The enemy came and dislodged us from our fox-holes” 238 Tazizaout: The morning after 238 24 Atlas Endgame: The Closing Stages (1933–4) 242 Ayt ‘Atta win immortal fame in Saghro battle 242 Closing moves of the Atlas campaign 243 Baddou battle 248 Last stand on Jbel Kousser 250 25 Pacification Aftermath 252 Last shots in “Morocco’s Thirty Years’ War” 252 First years of peace 253 The “Berber dahir” 255 26 Transition to Modernity: Protectorate and Independence 258 Postwar problems 260 The road to independence 261 Descent into oblivion 262 Start of Berber revival 264 27 From Oblivion to Recognition 266 Founding of IRCAM 268 28 Conclusion 272 Notes 276 Bibliography 316 Index 330