The Bedford Researcher

It has never been more important to learn how to locate relevant, credible sources, to evaluate competing ideas and arguments, and to share our thoughts with others in a compelling, well-supported manner. This edition of The Bedford Researcher, like those that have come before it, was written to help students strengthen their ability to understand, assess, and contribute to ongoing conversations about important issues. Tech-savvy and student-friendly, The Bedford Researcher addresses the wide variety of source-based writing students do and the kinds of sources they actually use, from multimodal projects and oral presentations to Web sites and digital databases. The Bedford Researcher strips away the complexities of research writing across the disciplines and offers the practical help students need to write with confidence while integrating electronic sources and tools into each stage of the process. It addresses the vast amount of information available to writers, the expanding variety of media and genres used by writers to share their work, the critical importance and increasingly challenge of evaluating sources, and the demands of managing information effectively and efficiently. Directory of Tutorials and Activities The Research Process Title Page Copyright Page Preface for Instructors Introduction for Writers Contents Part I Joining the Conversation 1 Getting Started 1a How can I research and write with confidence? Think of Writing as a Form of Conversation Reflect on Your Experience in Conversations Use Your Understanding of Conversations to Write Confidently Use Your Experiences with Technology to Improve Your Writing Understand the Rhetorical Nature of Writing Situations Writers Have Purposes, Roles, and Biases Readers Have Purposes and Biases Writing Builds on the Work of Others Contexts Shape Writing Situations Social contexts Cultural and historical contexts Disciplinary and professional contexts Physical and technological contexts Writing Situations Influence Genre Choices and Design Decisions Genres Design Writing Situations Present Limitations and Opportunities Understand and Manage Your Research Writing Processes View Research Writing Processes as Flexible and Overlapping Understand How to Manage Your Research Writing Project Be Aware of New Technological Opportunities Take Ownership of Your Project 1b How can I approach an assignment? Consider Your Writing Situation Who are my readers and why would they read my document? What will influence me and what will influence my readers? What type of document am I writing? What contexts will affect my work on the document? What role will I adopt toward my readers? What will affect my ability to work on this project? Requirements and Limitations Opportunities Generate Ideas about Potential Topics Brainstorm Freewrite Blind Write or Dictate Use Looping Use Clustering Use Sentence Starters Choose an Appropriate Topic Reflect on Your Writing Situation Think of Your Topic as a Conversation You’d Like to Join Look for a Topic Appropriate to Your Writing Situation Be Flexible 2 Exploring and Focusing 2a How can I explore my topic? Step 1: Create a Plan to Explore Your Topic Step 2: Discuss Your Topic with Others Step 3: Conduct Preliminary Observations Step 4: Identify Useful Types of Sources Step 5: Find Sources Search your library’s catalog Browse your library’s shelves Browse newsstands and bookstores Search databases Search the Web Search social media Visit online discussion groups, 2b How can I focus on an issue? Step 1: Identify Conversations about Issues in Your Topic Find Central Concepts Repeated in Your Sources Find Broad Themes Discussed in Your Sources Find Disagreements among Your Sources Find Recurring Voices in Your Sources Step 2: Assess Your Interest in the Issues Step 3: Choose an Issue 3 Developing Your Research Question 3a How can I develop my research question? Step 1: Reflect on Your Issue and Disciplinary Context Step 2: Focus on Your Role Step 3: Focus on an Aspect of Your Issue Step 4: Choose and Focus Your Research Question Step 5: Refine Your Research Question Refer to Shared Assumptions and Existing Conditions Narrow the Scope of Your Research Question Conduct Preliminary Searches Part II Working with Sources 4 Reading Critically and Actively 4a. How can I read sources critically? Read with an attitude Distinguish between critical reading and evaluating Approach a source with your writing situation in mind Read promising sources more than once Develop a position on your research question 4b. What strategies can I use to read actively? Skim for organization and content Mark and annotate sources Take notes 4c. What should I pay attention to as I read? Identify the genre Note illustrations Identify primary and secondary sources Identify main points Identify reasons and evidence Identify interpretive frameworks Trend Analysis Causal Analysis Data Analysis Text Analysis Rhetorical Analysis Identify new and hard-to-understand information Identify similarities and differences 5 Evaluating Sources 5a. What factors should I use to evaluate a source? Evaluate relevance Evaluate evidence Evaluate the author Evaluate the publisher Evaluate timeliness Evaluate comprehensiveness Evaluate genre 5b. Should I evaluate all types of sources in the same way? Evaluate the relevance and credibility of digital sources Websites and Blogs Social Networking Sites and Discussion Venues Wikis Evaluate the relevance and accuracy of field sources 6 Taking Notes 6a Why should I take notes? 6b How can I take notes? Quote Directly Modifying a Direct Quotation Using Ellipsis Marks Modifying a Direct Quotation Using Brackets Modifying Quotations Using “Sic” Paraphrase Summarize 6c How can I use my notes to improve my understanding of an issue? Record Your Reactions and Impressions Compare Sources Look for Similarities Look for Disagreements Look for Common Citations Classify Sources Plan Your Document 7 Engaging with Information, Ideas, and Arguments 7a What should I know about academic writing? Understand Academic Genres Understand How to Develop an Academic Argument Understand the Role of “Intermediate” Genres 7b How can I create and use a bibliography? Create a Working Bibliography Create an Annotated Bibliography 7c How can I summarize sources? Write a Main-Point Summary Write a Key-Points Summary Write an Outline Summary 7d How can I respond to sources? Write an Agree/Disagree Response Write a Reflective Response Write an Analytic Response Write an Evaluative Response 7e How can I explore connections among sources? Explore Ideas through Informal Writing Create a Review of Literature 7f How can I create a research proposal? Identify Your Topic, Issue, and Research Question Provide a Review of Literature Explain How You’ll Collect Information Develop a Project Timeline Compile a Working or an Annotated Bibliography Clarify and Elaborate on Your Core Proposal 8 Managing Information 8a How can I save and organize print information? 8b How can I save and organize digital information? Downloading Copying and Pasting Using E-mail Taking Photos, Making Recordings, and Saving Notes Saving Bookmarks and Favorites in Your Browser Backing Up Your Files 9 Avoiding Plagiarism 9a What is plagiarism? Unintentional Plagiarism Intentional Plagiarism Plagiarism in Group Projects 9b What are research ethics? 9c What is common knowledge? 9d What is fair use and when should I ask permission to use a source? 9e How can I avoid plagiarism? Conduct a Knowledge Inventory Take Notes Carefully As You Draft, Distinguish between Your Ideas and Ideas in Your Sources Identify Sources in Your Document Understand Why Writers Plagiarize “It’s easier to plagiarize.” “I ran out of time.” “I couldn’t care less about this assignment.” “I’m no good at writing.” “I didn’t think I’d get caught.” “Everybody cheats.” “This course is a waste of my time.” 9f What should I do if I’m accused of plagiarism? Part III Collecting Information 10 Searching for Information 10a How can I prepare to search digital resources? Review Your Research Plan and Proposal Identify Keywords and Phrases Plan Basic Searches Adding Keywords Searching for Exact Phrases Using Wildcards Plan Advanced Searches Focusing Searches with Boolean Operators Limiting Searches Using Special Operators in Web Searches 10b How can I locate sources using digital tools? Search Library Catalogs Use Search Features Search by Keyword Search by Author Search by Title Search with Multiple Strategies Browse by Subject Heading or Call Number Search Databases Identify Relevant Databases Am I focusing on an issue that is likely to have been addressed in recent news coverage? Am I focusing on a broad area of interest, such as business, education, or government? Am I focusing on an issue that is related to a particular profession or academic discipline? Have I already identified sources about my issue? Is the full text of the source available? Am I searching for images, video, or audio? Search the Web Use Web Search Engines Use Meta Search Sites Use News Search Sites Use Reference Search Sites Use Government Document Sites Use E-book Sites Use Blog Search Sites Search Social Media Sites Search Media Sites Use Image Search Sites and Directories Use Audio Search Sites Use Video Search Sites 10c How can I locate sources using print resources? Discuss Your Search Plan with a Librarian Visit the Library Stacks Browse Periodicals Check Reference Works Consult Bibliographies Review Indexes Check Biographies Browse Encyclopedias Consult Handbooks Review Almanacs Scan Atlases 11 Collecting Information with Field Research 11a When should I use field research methods? 11b How can I conduct an interview? Plan Your Interview Decide Whom to Interview Decide What You Should Ask Decide How to Conduct Your Interview Decide Whether to Share Questions in Advance Decide How to Record and Take Notes on Your Interview Conduct Your Interview Analyze Your Results 11c How can I conduct an observation? Plan Your Observation Decide What You Should Observe and How Often You Should Observe It Decide What to Look For Decide Whether You Need Permission to Observe Conduct Your Observation Analyze Your Results 11d How can I conduct a survey? Plan Your Survey Decide Whom to Survey Decide What to Ask and How to Ask It with Integrity Determine Whether You Are Asking Your Questions Clearly Distribute Your Survey Conduct Your Survey Analyze Your Results 11e How can I engage in other forms of field research? Engage in Correspondence Attend Public Events Collaborate with Others Part IV Creating Your Document 12 Developing Your Thesis Statement 12a How can I prepare to draft my thesis statement? Review Your Position Statement Review Your Notes Consider Your Purpose and Role Reflect on Your Readers 12b How can I develop an effective thesis statement? Step 1: Identify Important Information, Ideas, and Arguments Associated with Your Position Step 2: Focus on Your Role Step 3: Consider the Type of Document You Plan to Write Step 4: Draft Alternatives Step 5: Choose Your Thesis Statement Step 6: Refine Your Thesis Statement Add Information Refer to Shared Assumptions and Common Knowledge Narrow the Scope of Your Thesis Statement 13 Developing and Organizing Your Argument 13a How can I develop my argument? Choose Reasons to Support Your Main Point Decide How Your Reasons Support Your Main Point Select Evidence to Support Your Reasons Decide How to Appeal to Your Readers Appeals to authority Appeals to emotion Appeals to principles, values, and beliefs Appeals to character Appeals to logic Deduction Induction Decide How to Address Opposing Arguments Identify Counterarguments Address Counterarguments Concede Valid Claims Refute Widely Held Claims Ignore Competing Claims Check for Logical Fallacies Check for Fallacies Based on Distraction Ad hominem attacks Irrelevant history Look for Fallacies Based on Questionable Assumptions Sweeping generalizations, Straw-man attacks Citing inappropriate authorities Jumping on a bandwagon, Search for Fallacies Based on Misrepresentation Stacking the deck, Base-rate fallacies Questionable analogies, Locate Fallacies Based on Careless Reasoning Post hoc fallacies, Slippery-slope arguments Either/or arguments Non sequiturs Circular reasoning, 13b How can I organize my argument? Choose an Organizing Pattern Chronology Description Definition Cause/Effect Process Explanation Pro/Con Multiple Perspectives Comparison/Contrast Strengths/Weaknesses Costs/Benefits Problem/Solution Review and Arrange Your Evidence Label Evidence Group Evidence Use Clustering Use Mapping Create an Outline Create an Informal Outline Create a Formal Outline Topical outlines Sentence outlines 14 Drafting 14a How can I help my readers follow my argument? Work from an Outline Create Paragraphs That Focus on a Central Idea Create Paragraphs That Use Appropriate Organizing Patterns Create Transitions within and between Paragraphs Provide Cues to Keep Your Readers on Track Provide Forecasts and Cross-References Use Headings and Subheadings Use a Menu Pay Attention to Design Principles Integrate Information from Sources Effectively 14b How can I write with style and engage my readers? Use Details to Capture Your Readers’ Attention Write Clearly and Concisely Write Actively (Most of the Time) Adopt a Consistent Point of View Vary Your Sentence Structure Choose Your Words Carefully Formality Specialized Language Variety Avoid Sexist Language Consult a Good Handbook 14c How can I use my introduction to frame my issue? Call Attention to an Aspect of the Issue Choose an Appropriate Strategy for Your Introduction State the Topic Establish the Context State Your Thesis Define a Problem Make a Surprising Statement Ask a Question Tell a Story Provide a Historical Account Draw a Contrast Lead with a Quotation Provide a Map 14d How can I use my conclusion to frame my issue? Reinforce Your Argument Select an Appropriate Strategy for Your Conclusion Offer Additional Analysis Speculate about the Future Close with a Quotation Close with a Story Close with a Question Call Your Readers to Action Link to Your Introduction 15 Using Sources Effectively 15a How can I use sources to accomplish my purposes as a writer? Introduce an Idea or Argument Contrast Ideas or Arguments Provide Evidence for Your Argument Align Your Argument with an Authority Define a Concept, Illustrate a Process, or Clarify a Statement Set a Mood Provide an Example Amplify or Qualify a Point 15b How can I integrate sources into my draft? Identify Your Sources Use Attributions and In-Text Citations Provide a Context Quote Strategically Partial quotations Complete quotations Block quotations Modify Quotations Appropriately Punctuate Quotations Correctly Paraphrase Information, Ideas, and Arguments Summarize Summarize an Entire Source Summarize Specific Ideas and Information from a Source Summarize a Group of Sources Present Numerical Information Use Images, Audio, Video, and Animations 15c How should I document my sources? 15d How can I ensure I’ve avoided unintentional plagiarism? Quote, Paraphrase, and Summarize Accurately and Appropriately Distinguish between Your Ideas and Ideas in Your Sources Check for Unattributed Sources in Your Document 16 Designing Documents 16a What role does design play in my document? Understand Design Principles Balance Emphasis Placement Repetition Consistency Design for a Purpose Design for Your Readers Help Readers Understand the Organization of a Document Help Readers Locate Information and Ideas Help Readers Recognize the Function of Parts of a Document Design to Address Genre Conventions 16b What design elements can I use? Use Fonts, Line Spacing, and Alignment Use Page Layout Elements Use Color, Shading, Borders, and Rules Use Illustrations 16c How can I design my document? Design an Academic Essay Ask How Design Can Help You Achieve Your Goals Consider Reader Expectations View an Essay Design a Multimodal Essay Consider Your Purpose and Role Consider Reader Expectations about Design Choose Your Composing Tools View a Multimodal Essay Design an Article Consider Your Purpose and Role Consider Reader Expectations about Design View an Article Design a Website Consider Your Purpose and Role Consider Reader Expectations about Design View Pages from a Website 17 Revising and Editing 17a What should I focus on as I revise my document? Consider Your Writing Situation Consider Your Argument and Ideas Consider Your Use and Integration of Sources Consider the Structure and Organization of Your Document Consider Genre and Design 17b What strategies should I use to revise? Save Multiple Drafts Highlight Your Main Point, Reasons, and Evidence Challenge Your Assumptions Scan, Outline, and Map Your Document Ask for Feedback 17c What should I focus on as I edit my document? Focus on Accuracy Focus on Economy Focus on Consistency Focus on Style Focus on Spelling, Grammar, and Punctuation 17d What strategies should I use to edit? Read Carefully Mark and Search Your Document Mark Your Document Use the Find and Replace Tools Use the Split Window Tool Use Spelling, Grammar, and Style Tools with Caution Ask for Feedback 18 Presenting Your Work 18a How can I make an oral presentation? Consider Your Purpose and Audience Narrow Your Scope Create a Bare-Bones Outline Think about Language Prepare Speaker’s Notes Engage with Your Audience View Speaker’s Notes 18b How can I give a multimedia presentation? Consider Your Purpose Consider Audience Expectations about Design View a Multimedia Presentation 18c How can I create a poster presentation? Consider Your Purpose and Audience Consider Audience Expectations about Design View a Poster 18d How can I develop a portfolio? Consider Your Writing Situation Select Your Materials Choose a Publishing Tool Design Your Portfolio Part V Documenting Sources 19 Understanding Documentation Systems 19a What is a documentation system and which one should I use? 19b How should I document my sources? 20 Using MLA Style 20a How do I cite sources within the text of my document? 1. Basic Format for Direct Quotation 2. Basic Format for a Summary or Paraphrase 3. Entire Source 4. Corporate, Group, or Government Author 5. Unknown Author 6. Two or More Works by the Same Author 7. Two or More Authors with the Same Last Name 8. Two Authors 9. Three or More Authors 10. Literary Work 11. Work in an Edited Collection or Anthology 12. Sacred Text 13. Two or More Works Cited Together 14. Source Quoted in Another Source 15. Source without Page Numbers 20b How do I prepare the list of works cited? Books, Conference Proceedings, and Dissertations 16. One Author 17. Two Authors 18. Three or More Authors 19. Corporate or Group Author 20. Unknown Author 21. Two or More Books by the Same Author 22. Editor(s) 23. Author(s) with an Editor or Translator 24. Book in a Language Other Than English 25. Edition Other Than the First 26. Multivolume Work 27. Book in a Series 28. Republished Book 29. Book with a Title within the Title 30. Work in an Edited Collection or Anthology 31. Foreword, Introduction, Preface, or Afterword 32. Published Proceedings of a Conference 33. Screenplay 34. Sacred Text 35. Graphic Narrative or Illustrated Work 36. Dissertation or Thesis Sources in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers 37. Article in a Journal 38. Article in a Monthly or Bimonthly Magazine 39. Article in a Weekly or Biweekly Magazine 40. Article in a Newspaper 41. Unsigned Article in a Newspaper or Magazine 42. Article That Skips Pages 43. Article with a Quotation in the Title 44. Editorial in a Newspaper 45. Letter to the Editor 46. Review 47. Published Interview 48. Article in a Special Issue Reference Works 49. Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac 50. Entry in Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac (including a Wiki) 51. Map or Chart 52. Government Publications 53. Brochure or Pamphlet Field Sources 54. Personal Interview 55. Unpublished Letter 56. Lecture or Public Address Media Sources 57. Film or Video 58. Television or Radio Program 59. Sound Recording or Audio Clip 60. Musical Score 61. Work of Art, Photograph, or Other Image 62. Advertisement 63. Cartoon 64. Live Performance Other Digital Sources 65. Entire Website 66. Academic Course or Department Home Page 67. Short Work from a Website 68. Message Posted to a Newsgroup, E-mail List, or Online Discussion Forum 69. Blog 70. E-mail Message 71. Facebook Post or Comment 72. Twitter Post (Tweet) 73. Computer Software, App, or Video Game 74. Other Sources MLA-Style Research Essay 21 Using APA Style 21a How do I cite sources within the text of my document? 1. Basic Format for Direct Quotation 2. Basic Format for Summary or Paraphrase 3. Two Authors 4. Three, Four, or Five Authors 5. More Than Five Authors 6. Corporate or Group Author 7. Unknown Author 8. Two or More Works 9. Source Quoted in Another Source 10. Source with No Page Numbers 11. Two or More Authors with the Same Last Name 12. E-mail and Other Personal Communication 13. Document from a Website 21b How do I prepare the reference list? Books, Conference Proceedings, and Dissertations 14. One Author 15. Two or More Authors 16. Corporate or Group Author 17. Unknown Author 18. Two or More Works by the Same Author(s) 19. Translated Book 20. Book in a Series 21. Republication 22. Book in an Edition Other Than the First 23. Multivolume Work 24. Editor 25. Author with an Editor 26. Anthology 27. Chapter in an Edited Book or Selection in an Anthology 28. Foreword, Introduction, Preface, or Afterword 29. Published Proceedings of a Conference 30. Paper Published in the Proceedings of a Conference 31. Sacred Text 32. Published Dissertation or Thesis 33. Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis Sources in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers 34. Article in a Journal Paginated by Volume 35. Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue 36. Article in an Online Journal or Periodical 37. Article in a Magazine 38. Article in a Newspaper 39. Unsigned Article in a Newspaper 40. Letter to the Editor 41. Review 42. Published Interview 43. Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year Reference Works 44. Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac 45. Entry in Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac 46. Government Publication 47. Brochure or Pamphlet Field Sources 48. Personal Interview 49. Letter 50. Lecture or Public Address Media Sources 51. Film or Video 52. Television or Radio Program 53. Sound Recording, Audio Clip, or Podcast 54. Work of Art, Photograph, or Other Image Other Digital Sources 55. Nonperiodical Web Document 56. E-mail Message or Real-Time Communication 57. Article Posted on a Wiki 58. Message Posted to a Newsgroup, E-mail List, or Online Discussion Forum 59. Blog 60. Twitter Post (Tweet) 61. Facebook Page, Post, or Status Update 62. File Obtained Online 63. Computer Software Other Sources 64. General Advice about Other Sources APA-Style Research Essay 22 Using Chicago Style 22a How do I cite sources within the text of my document? 1. Numbering 2. Placement of the Note Numbers in the Text 3. Placement of Notes 4. Including Page Numbers in a Note 5. Cross-Referencing Notes 6. Citing the Same Source in Multiple Notes 7. Citing a Source Quoted in Another Source 22b How do I format notes and prepare the bibliography? Books, Conference Proceedings, and Dissertations 8. One Author 9. Two or Three Authors 10. Four or More Authors 11. Corporate or Group Author 12. Unknown Author 13. Translated Book 14. Edition Other Than the First 15. Untitled Volume in a Multivolume Work 16. Titled Volume in a Multivolume Work 17. Book in a Series 18. Republished Book 19. Author with an Editor 20. Anthology or Collection with an Editor 21. Foreword, Introduction, Preface, or Afterword 22. Chapter in a Book or Selection in an Anthology 23. Published Proceedings of a Conference 24. Paper Published in the Proceedings of a Conference 25. Sacred Text 26. Published Dissertation or Thesis 27. Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis 28. Abstract of a Dissertation or Thesis Sources in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers 29. Article in a Journal 30. Article in a Monthly Magazine 31. Article in a Weekly Magazine 32. Article in a Newspaper 33. Unsigned Article in a Newspaper or Magazine 34. Letter to the Editor 35. Review Reference Works 36. Entry in Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac 37. Government Publication 38. Pamphlet, Report, or Brochure Field Sources 39. Personal Interview 40. Letter or Other Personal Communication 41. Survey 42. Observation Notes 43. Lecture or Public Address Media Sources 44. Film or Video 45. Television or Radio Program 46. Sound Recording, Audio Clip, or Podcast Other Digital Sources 47. Nonperiodical Website 48. Article Posted on a Wiki 49. Blog 50. E-mail Message 51. Online Posting to a Discussion Group Chicago-Style Research Essay 23 Using CSE Style 23a How do I cite sources within the text of my document? 1. Format and Placement of the Note 2. Citing a Previously Mentioned Source 3. Citing a Source within a Source 23b How do I prepare the reference list? Books, Conference Proceedings, and Dissertations 4. One Author 5. Two or More Authors 6. Corporate or Group Author 7. Unknown Author 8. Translated Book 9. Book in an Edition Other Than the First 10. Multivolume Work 11. Authored Book with an Editor 12. Book in a Series 13. Anthology or Collection with an Editor 14. Chapter in an Edited Book or a Work in an Anthology 15. Foreword, Introduction, Preface, or Afterword of a Book 16. Chapter of a Book 17. Published Proceedings of a Conference 18. Paper Published in the Proceedings of a Conference 19. Published Dissertation or Thesis 20. Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis Sources in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers 21. Article in a Journal 22. Article in a Magazine 23. Article in a Newspaper 24. Unsigned Article in a Newspaper Reference Works 25. Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac 26. Map or Chart 27. Pamphlet Media Sources 28. Film or Video 29. Television or Radio Program 30. Sound Recording Field Sources 31. Personal Interview 32. Personal Letter 33. Lecture or Public Address Other Digital Sources 34. Website 35. Document on a Website 36. E-mail Message 37. E-mail Discussion List Message 38. Article Posted on a Wiki 39. Entry or Comment on a Blog CSE Citation-Sequence Style Research Essay Index Inside Back Cover Back Cover