The Atlantic Forest : history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest

The Atlantic Forest is one of the 36 hotspots for biodiversity conservation worldwide. It is a unique, large biome (more than 3000 km in latitude; 2500 in longitude), marked by high biodiversity, high degree of endemic species and, at the same time, extremely threatened. Approximately 70% of the Brazilian population lives in the area of this biome, which makes the conflict between biodiversity conservation and the sustainability of the human population a relevant issue. This book aims to cover: 1) the historical characterization and geographic variation of the biome; 2) the distribution of the diversity of some relevant taxa; 3) the main threats to biodiversity, and 4) possible opportunities to ensure the biodiversity conservation, and the economic and social sustainability. Also, it is hoped that this book can be useful for those involved in the development of public policies aimed at the conservation of this important global biome. [springer.com] Foreword References Preface Time to Rethink the Atlantic Forest Acknowledgments Contents Contributors Part I: Historical and Biogeographical Aspects Chapter 1: The Atlantic Forest: An Introduction to the Megadiverse Forest of South America 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Paths of Scientific Knowledge 1.2.1 The Science of Naturalists (Late Eighteenth Century to Late Nineteenth Century) 1.2.2 The Rising of Science in Brazil: The Organization of Atlantic Forest Biodiversity (1890–1985) 1.2.3 The Contemporary Era (1985–2019): A Bibliometric Analysis The Rise and Establishment of Conservation Science (1985–2015) Biodiversity Collections and Big Data 1.3 The Limits of the Atlantic Forest 1.4 The Atlantic Forest Sectorization 1.5 Conclusion References Chapter 2: The Atlantic Forest Ecological History: From Pre-colonial Times to the Anthropocene 2.1 Introduction 2.2 First Clash: Humans’ Arrival in the Atlantic Forest and Consequences in the Landscape 2.3 Second Clash: Transforming Forest Biomass into Food: Agriculture and Landscape Domestication 2.4 Third Clash: The Colonial Enterprise and the Implementation of Large Social-Ecological Systems 2.4.1 A Substantial Shift: From Extractivism to Monoculture Farming 2.4.2 The Sugarcane and the Forest: The Plantation System Begins 2.4.3 The Coffee Plantation System and the Retraction of the Atlantic Forest 2.5 Fourth Clash: The Introduction of Large Ungulate Mammals and the Transformation of the Forest into Pastures with African Grasses 2.5.1 What Came in the First Caravels? The First Introduction of Novel Fauna 2.5.2 Exotic Grass Demand: The Nutritional Issue 2.6 Fifth Clash: The Demand for Energy for the Growing Urbanization and the Transformation of Forest into Charcoal 2.7 Concluding Remarks: The Anthropocene Clash and Current Social-Ecological Configuration References Chapter 3: The North-Eastern Atlantic Forest: Biogeographical, Historical, and Current Aspects in the Sugarcane Zone 3.1 The Natural Settings: Biogeographical Aspects of the Northern Atlantic Forest 3.1.1 Biogeographical Overview 3.1.2 Vegetation Physiognomies, Climate, and Topography 3.2 The Anthropogenic Drivers of Change: Forest Loss and the Definition of a North-Eastern Sugarcane Zone 3.3 Anthropogenic Disturbances and Biodiversity: Consequences of Five Centuries of Land Conversion and the Present-Day Setting 3.4 A Challenging Future for Atlantic Forest Conservation in the North-Eastern Sugarcane Zone References Chapter 4: The Hileia Baiana: An Assessment of Natural and Historical Aspects of the Land Use and Degradation of the Central Corridor of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest 4.1 The Natural Features of the Hileia Baiana 4.2 Forests and Territory: Land-Use Changes along the Colonial Period 4.3 Three Forest Regions and Their Distinctive History and Land-Use Dynamics 4.3.1 The Forests of Southern Bahia 4.3.2 The Forests on the Extreme South of Bahia 4.3.3 The Forests on the North of Doce River 4.4 The Challenge of Conserving What Remains References Chapter 5: The Southern Atlantic Forest: Use, Degradation, and Perspectives for Conservation 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Use and Degradation of the Three Major Atlantic Forests South of the Doce River 5.2.1 Atlantic Dense Forest Characteristics History of Degradation and Present Socioeconomic Drivers Conservation Efforts Perspectives and Challenges 5.2.2 Araucaria Mixed Forest Characteristics History of Degradation and Present Socioeconomic Drivers Conservation Efforts Perspectives and Challenges 5.2.3 Atlantic Seasonal Forest Characteristics History of Degradation and Present Socioeconomic Drivers Conservation Efforts Perspectives and Challenges 5.3 Conclusions References Part II: Biodiversity Chapter 6: Tree Diversity in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Biases and General Patterns Using Different Sources of Information 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Primary Biodiversity Data 6.2.1 Herbarium Data 6.2.2 Forest Inventory Data 6.3 Quantifying and Explaining Sampling Bias in Tree Diversity Data 6.4 Insights on Patterns of Tree Diversity 6.5 Spatial Priorities for Future Sampling of Primary Biodiversity Data 6.6 Concluding Remarks: Where to Go from Here? References Chapter 7: Vascular Epiphytes of the Atlantic Forest: Diversity and Community Ecology 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Vascular Epiphyte Studies 7.3 Vascular Epiphyte Diversity 7.3.1 Number of Vascular Epiphyte Species 7.4 Biogeography of Vascular Epiphytes 7.4.1 Latitude 7.4.2 Elevation 7.4.3 Past Events 7.5 Relationships Between Epiphytes and Their Phorophytes 7.6 Conservation 7.7 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 8: Social Insects of the Atlantic Forest 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ants 8.2.1 Origin and Evolution 8.2.2 Diversity and Biogeography 8.2.3 Ecological Importance and Functional Composition 8.2.4 Representativeness and State of Knowledge of Ant Fauna from the Atlantic Forest 8.2.5 Knowledge Gaps and Prospects 8.3 Eusocial Bees 8.3.1 Origin and Evolution 8.3.2 Diversity and Biogeography 8.3.3 Ecological Importance and Functional Composition 8.3.4 Representativeness and State of Knowledge of Eusocial Bee Fauna from the Atlantic Forest 8.3.5 Knowledge Gaps and Prospects 8.4 Eusocial Wasps 8.4.1 Origin and Evolution 8.4.2 Diversity and Biogeography 8.4.3 Ecological Importance and Functional Composition 8.4.4 Representativeness and State of Knowledge of Eusocial Wasp Fauna from the Atlantic Forest 8.4.5 Knowledge Gaps and Prospects 8.5 Termites (Blattaria, Isoptera) 8.5.1 Origin and Evolution 8.5.2 Diversity and Biogeography 8.5.3 Ecological Importance and Functional Composition 8.5.4 Representativeness and State of Knowledge of Termite Fauna from the Atlantic Forest 8.5.5 Knowledge Gaps and Prospects 8.6 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 9: Tetrapod Diversity in the Atlantic Forest: Maps and Gaps 9.1 Overview 9.2 Endemism 9.3 Tetrapod Diversity 9.3.1 Spatial Patterns of Diversity 9.4 Knowledge Quality 9.4.1 Linnean Shortfall 9.4.2 Wallacean Shortfall 9.5 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 10: Freshwater Studies in the Atlantic Forest: General Overview and Prospects 10.1 Introduction 10.2 A Classification of Freshwater Ecosystems and the Freshwater Ecosystems in the Atlantic Forest 10.2.1 The Novel Ecosystems in the Atlantic Forest and Anthropogenic Threats 10.3 A Panorama of Studies in the Main Aquatic Communities of the Atlantic Forest 10.3.1 Freshwater Fish: The Most Emblematic Aquatic Vertebrate Scrutinized and Threatened 10.3.2 Other Aquatic and Semiaquatic Vertebrates: Few Studies, Many Threats, and Some Prospects Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals 10.3.3 Aquatic Macroinvertebrates: Astonishing and Threaten Diversity, Still Underestimated 10.3.4 Zooplankton: Panorama of Studies in the “Bridge Community” Between Producers and Secondary Consumers 10.3.5 Aquatic Macrophytes: Massive Primary Production, Structuring Role, and Biological Invasions 10.3.6 Microalgae: The Most Known Primary Producers and Indicators of Water Quality 10.4 Prospects for Freshwaters in the Atlantic Forest References Part III: Threats Chapter 11: Land-Cover Changes and an Uncertain Future: Will the Brazilian Atlantic Forest Lose the Chance to Become a Hopespot? 11.1 Historical Changes 11.2 Recent Changes and the Current Situation 11.3 The Uncertain Future of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest References Chapter 12: Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Atlantic Forest: Best Climatic Models, Predicted Changes and Impacts, and Adaptation Options 12.1 Current and Future Climate 12.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity 12.3 Adaptation Strategies References Chapter 13: Non-native Species Introductions, Invasions, and Biotic Homogenization in the Atlantic Forest 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Non-native Species Trends and Patterns 13.2.1 NNS in Protected Areas: An Important Knowledge Gap for the AF 13.2.2 Hot Spots of NNS in AF Estuary Ecosystems 13.3 Selected Examples of INNS and Native Invaders of the AF 13.3.1 Fish 13.3.2 Bullfrogs and Amphibian Diseases 13.3.3 Birds 13.3.4 Wild Boar 13.3.5 When a Native Organism Becomes Invasive: Problems and Questions 13.4 Biotic Homogenization in AF 13.5 Future Steps and New Approaches to Biological Invasions in the AF 13.5.1 INVASIVESNET, Citizen Science, Apps, and e-DNA 13.5.2 Provenance Trials, Forestry Plantations, and Conifer Invasions in the AF 13.5.3 Inclusion of NNS in Museums and Scientific Collections 13.5.4 Conservation, Management, and Decision-Making 13.6 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Causes and Consequences of Large-Scale Defaunation in the Atlantic Forest 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Infectious Diseases 14.3 Hunting 14.4 Animal Trade 14.5 Invasive Species 14.6 Wildlife Collision (Infrastructure) 14.7 Habitat Loss, Fragmentation, and Degradation 14.8 Climate Change 14.9 The Spatial Distribution of Defaunation in the Atlantic Forest 14.10 Functional Defaunation, Trophic Cascades and the Loss of the Atlantic Forest Top Predators 14.11 The Loss of Critical Seed Dispersal Functions 14.12 The Ecological Consequences of Losing Large Herbivores 14.13 How to Revert Defaunation and Its Consequences: A Tool Kit Literature Cited Chapter 15: Pollination Systems in the Atlantic Forest: Characterisation, Threats, and Opportunities 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Pollination Systems in the Atlantic Forest 15.3 Generalist and Specialist Pollination Systems in Atlantic Forest 15.3.1 Specialised Pollination Systems in Atlantic Forest 15.3.2 Generalised Pollination Systems in Atlantic Forest 15.4 The Threats to Pollination Interactions: Habitat Loss, Climate Change, and Invasive Species 15.5 Impacts of Pollinator Decline on Plant Reproduction in Natural and Agricultural Environments 15.5.1 Pollination Deficit in Natural and Agricultural Environments 15.5.2 Implications of Pollination Deficit for the Maintenance of Natural Plant Populations and Crop Productivity 15.6 Opportunities: Restoration, Landscape Management, and Protected Areas Can Contribute to the Maintenance of Pollination Service References Part IV: Opportunities Chapter 16: Atlantic Forest: Ecosystem Services Linking People and Biodiversity 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Profile of Scientific Production on Atlantic Forest Ecosystem Services 16.3 Spatial Patterns of Ecosystem Services in Atlantic Forest 16.4 The Future of Ecosystem Services Provision in the Atlantic Forest 16.5 Defining Strategies for Ensuring Ecosystem Services in the Atlantic Forest 16.6 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Changing the Agriculture Paradigm in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest: The Importance of Agroforestry 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Agroforestry 17.2.1 Definitions and Classifications 17.2.2 Agroforestry Benefits 17.2.3 Agroforestry, Agroecology and Integrated Landscape Management Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 17.3 Agroforestry in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest 17.3.1 Case Studies 17.4 Looking Forward References Chapter 18: Engaging People for Large-Scale Forest Restoration: Governance Lessons from the Atlantic Forest of Brazil 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Methodology 18.3 Results and Discussion 18.4 Key Messages References Chapter 19: The Atlantic Forest Trail: Reconnecting People, Biodiversity, and Protected Areas 19.1 Introduction 19.2 The Atlantic Forest Trail 19.3 History and Project Structure 19.4 Project Strategic Axes 19.4.1 Trail Implementation and Protected Areas Strengthening 19.4.2 Outreach, Engagement, and Volunteering 19.4.3 Tourism Supply Chain 19.4.4 Biodiversity and Ecological Corridors 19.5 State of the Art of the Atlantic Forest Trail 19.6 Perspectives References Chapter 20: Conservation Initiatives in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Priority Areas for Biodiversity Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest 20.2.1 Participatory Process 20.2.2 Step I: Assessment of the Previous Priority Area Update 20.2.3 Step II: Definition of Targets and Goals 20.2.4 Step III: Definition of the Cost Layer 20.2.5 Step IV: Definition of the Opportunity Layer 20.2.6 Step V: Definition of Priority Areas and Actions for the Conservation of Brazilian Atlantic Forest Biodiversity 20.3 Outcomes of the Participatory Process 20.4 The Brazilian National Centre for Flora Conservation (CNCFlora in the Portuguese Acronym) 20.4.1 Priority Areas for Plant Conservation and National Actions Plans 20.4.2 Current and Prospective Contributions 20.5 Private Protected Areas as Biome-Scale Strategy 20.5.1 RPPNs in the Atlantic Forest 20.6 NGO SOS Mata Atlântica 20.7 Academic Actions 20.7.1 Reintroduction of Vertebrate Populations in the Atlantic Forest Biome 20.8 Landscape Connectivity and Perceptual Ranges 20.9 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 21: Financing Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Public Spending on Environmental Protection in Brazil 21.3 Financial Mechanisms 21.3.1 Sustainable Public Procurement 21.3.2 Conversion of Environmental Fines 21.3.3 Environmental Compensation 21.3.4 Ecological ICMS (ICMS-E) 21.3.5 Green IPTU (Urban Property Tax) 21.3.6 Public Use (Visiting and Recreation) Concessions 21.3.7 Forest Concessions 21.3.8 Payments for Environmental Services 21.3.9 Projects to Prevent Emissions from Deforestation and Carbon Capture 21.3.10 Environmental Reserve Quotas (CRA) 21.4 Final Remarks References Chapter 22: Integrating Researchers for Understanding Biodiversity in Atlantic Forest 22.1 From Single to Integrated Studies 22.2 PELD, the Long-Term Research Program of Brazil 22.3 Searching for an Integrated Methodology: RAPELD 22.4 Integrating Research: The Brazilian Program for Biodiversity Research (PPBio) 22.5 Integrating Research and Biodiversity Conservation References Chapter 23: The Future of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Identifying Factors Affecting the Knowledge and Conservation of the Atlantic Forest 23.3 Strengths 23.4 Internal Weaknesses 23.5 Threats 23.6 Opportunities 23.7 A Promised Future 23.8 Conclusion References Index