The Archaeology, History and Heritage of WWII Karst Defenses in the Pacific: Cultures of Conflict (Contributions To Global Historical Archaeology)

This book is an archaeological study of the cultures of conflict through an examination of caves and tunnels used during the Pacific War. Referred to here as “karst defenses,” WWII caves and tunnels can be found throughout the karst landscapes of the Pacific. Karst defenses have been hidden, literally by the jungle and figuratively by history, for over 70 years. Based on a study of karst defenses and their related artifacts and oral histories in Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, this book uses karst defenses to investigate the varied human experiences before, during and after the Pacific War. Historically, the book reveals new knowledge about the overall defense strategies used in the Pacific. Karst defenses were a central component of Pacific War defense and were constructed and used by civilians, the Japanese military and U.S. troops as early as 1942. Karst defenses also functioned as command posts, hospitals, shelters, storage units and combat positions. The book sheds light on the social aspects that influenced the construction and use of karst defenses, including the fragmented relationship between the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Imperial Japanese Army, the social status of civilians under Japanese rule and the clandestine plans of the U.S. in Micronesia. The book also discusses the complex contemporary meanings of this dark, shared heritage. Preface Acknowledgements Contents List of Figures List of Tables Chapter 1: The Legacy Surrounding Us A Brief History of the Mariana Islands The Japanese Period in the Pacific and the Historical “Black Hole” Approach Archaeology and World War II Chapters A Note on Terminology References Chapter 2: Mysterious Ways Japan’s Meiji Restoration and the Formation of the Imperial Japanese Military The Imperial Japanese Military Prior to WWI Japan During WWI and Movement into Micronesia Japan in Micronesia The Lead-up to Pearl Harbour From Offence to Defence Karst Defences and Japan’s Defence Strategy Summary References Chapter 3: Archaeology and Post-War Studies of Karst Defences Peleliu’s Karst Defences Summary References Chapter 4: Karst Defences in Saipan Saipan’s Tunnels Entrances Internal Modifications Saipan’s Caves Additional Karst Defence Sites Karst Defence Material Culture Foodways Ceramics Glass Food and Beverage Cans, Cooking Vessels and Utensils Medicine and Medical Equipment Clothing and Equipment Clothing Gas Masks Field Equipment and Personal Items Weapons and Munitions Electrical and Communication Equipment Lighting Devices Human Remains Faunal Remains Summary References Chapter 5: The Mice and Two Elephants: Karst Defence Use and Occupancy Comparing Karst Defences in the Pacific IJA and IJN Karst Defences in Saipan Civilian Shelter Caves U.S. Occupation Discussion Summary References Chapter 6: Site Specific Behaviours During the Battle for Saipan Civilians The Japanese Military The U.S. Military Reconstructing the Battlefield Reconstructing the Battlefield with Karst Defences Conclusion References Chapter 7: A Dark Shared Heritage Indigenous Community Non-indigenous Groups Asian Non-residents U.S. Non-residents Political and Economic Context Heritage Law in the CNMI and Karst Defence Protection Karst Defences and Dark Tourism Sites of Conflict Conclusion References Conclusion Future Research Conclusions Appendices Appendix A: Known Locations and Characteristics of Karst Defences in the Pacific in Order of Allied Invasion Appendix B: Artifact Data Ware Types in Saipan Decoration on Japanese Porcelain from Saipan Summary of Japanese Ceramic Vessel Forms from Ross (2009b) Saipan Porcelain Vessel Forms Per Site Motifs on Saipan Porcelain Non-porcelain Vessels Translations of Marks on Japanese Ceramics on Saipan Glass Beverage and Condiment Vessels in Saipan Assemblage Japanese Beverage and Condiment Bottles Per Site Cans in Saipan Assemblage Shoe Fragments in Saipan Assemblage Gas Mask Components in Saipan Assemblage Ammunition in Saipan Karst Defences Grenades and Mortars in Saipan Electronic Equipment Located in Saipan’s Karst Defences War Period Human Remains in Saipan Appendix C: Site Integrity Assessment Appendix D: Data on Comparable Karst Defences Peleliu Tunnel Data (Denfeld 1988, 2002; Knecht et al. 2012; Lindsay et al. 2015; Phelan 1945) Truk Tunnel Data (Denfeld 1981a; U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Oceans Areas) Characteristics of Army and Navy Karst Defences in Peleliu and Truk (Denfeld 1981a, 1981b, 1988, 2002; Phelan 1945; U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas 1946) Artifact Differences Between the IJN and IJA (Denfeld 1997; Nakata and Nelson 1987; Nila 2002; Nila and Rolfe 2006; U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas 1946; War Department 1944a, 1944b; Yokohama WW2 Japanese Military Radio Museum 2015) Saipan Tunnel Data Saipan Cave Data Karst Defence Function in Saipan