The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber (Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics, 67) (English and Arabic Edition)

The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber provides an overview of the effects of language contact on a wide array of Berber languages spoken in the Maghrib. These languages have undergone important changes in their lexicon, phonology, morphology, and syntax as a result of over a thousand years of Arabic influence. The social situation of Berber-Arabic language contact is similar all over the region: Berber speakers introducing Arabic features into their language, with only little language shift going on. Moreover, the typological profile of the different Berber varieties is relatively homogenous. The comparison of contact-induced change in Berber therefore adds up to a study in typological variation of contact influence under very similar linguistic and social conditions. -- provided by publisher. Machine generated contents note: 2.1.The Afroasiatic Heritage -- 2.2.Berber Classification -- 2.3.Maghribian Arabic and the Arabicization of Northern Africa -- 2.4.Sociolinguistics of Berber-Arabic Contact -- 2.5.Diglossia and the Arabic Influence on Berber -- 2.6.The Dating of Arabic-Based Berber Innovations -- 3.1.Proto-Berber -- 3.2.Pre-Roman Loans in Berber -- 3.3.Latin Loans in Berber -- 3.4.Early Islamic Terminology -- 4.1.Introduction -- 4.1.1.Core Borrowings vs. Cultural Borrowings -- 4.1.2.Additive Borrowing -- 4.1.3.Substitutive Borrowing -- 4.1.4.Diglossic Insertion -- 4.2.Quantitative Approaches -- 4.3.Text Frequency of Arabic Borrowings -- 4.4.Borrowing Frequency in the Lexicon: The LWT Sample -- 4.5.Borrowing Frequency in the Lexicon: Core Vocabulary -- 4.5.1.Borrowing Lists of Basic Vocabulary -- 4.5.2.Borrowing Rates in a Number of Standard Lists -- 4.5.3.Borrowing in the Leipzig-Jakarta List: Quantitative Results --^ 4.5.4.Borrowing in the Leipzig-Jakarta List: Detailed Lexical Study -- 4.6.Borrowings in Core Vocabulary: A Sample Survey in Nouns -- 4.6.1.Body Parts -- 4.6.2.Natural Phenomena -- 4.6.3.Insects and other Small Non-Vertebrates -- 4.6.4.Metals -- 4.6.5.Cultivated Plants -- 4.6.6.Domestic Animals -- 4.7.Verbs -- 4.7.1.Verbs in Basic Word Lists -- 4.7.2.Verbs according to Activity Types and Contexts -- 4.7.3.Verbs of the Household Context -- 4.7.4.Verbs of Agriculture -- 4.7.5.Verbs of the Market Context -- 4.7.6.Movement Verbs -- 4.7.7.Verbs of Cognition and Emotion -- 4.7.8.Transitive Actions with (Normally) Inanimate Objects -- 5.1.Phonological Systems of Berber and Arabic -- 5.2.The Earliest Stratum of Loanwords -- 5.3.Later Loanwords -- 5.3.1.Arabic Loans and Berber-internal Innovations -- 5.3.2.The Integration of Foreign Phonemes -- 5.3.2.1.The Fate of s and ss -- 5.3.2.2.The Fate of d and t and Their Long Counterparts -- 5.3.2.3.The Fate of Arabic q --^ 5.3.2.4.The Fate of Arabic x, h and e -- 5.3.2.5.Some Rare Berber Consonants Strengthened by Arabic -- 5.4.The Use of Arabic Sounds in Non-Arabic Words -- 6.1.General Overview of the Two Systems -- 6.2.Integrated Borrowings -- 6.2.1.Non-Integrated Borrowings: General Features -- 6.2.2.Paradigmatic Gender Relationship in Non-Integrated Borrowings -- 6.3.Integrated Borrowings with Retention of the Arabic Article -- 6.4.Non-Integrated Borrowings Lacking the Arabic Article -- 6.5.The Distribution of Integrated and Non-Integrated Borrowings over the Lexicon -- 6.6.Comparing Berber Morphology and Non-Integrated Morphology -- 7.1.General Morphological Facts -- 7.2.Arabic Derived Forms in Berber -- 7.3.The Insertion of Arabic Verb Shapes into Berber Morphology -- 7.3.1.The Treatment of Verbs without a Plain Vowel in Arabic -- 7.3.1.1.CCC Verbs and Longer Stems -- 7.3.1.2.C1C2C2 Verbs -- 7.3.1.3.Arabic Aspectual Apophoriy in Borrowed Arabic Verbs without a Plain Vowel --^ 7.3.2.The Integration of Arabic Verbs with a Final Vowel -- 7.3.2.1.First Stem Verbs -- 7.3.2.2.Other Stem Forms -- 7.3.2.3.Vowel-final Arabic Verbs and the Question of Imperfect Vocalization -- 7.3.3.Integrating Arabic Verbs with an Initial or Internal Plain Vowel -- 7.3.3.1.Verbs with Initial ?a -- 7.3.3.2.Verbs with an Internal Vowel, Excepting CVC Verbs -- 7.3.3.3.CVC Verbs -- 7.4.Taking over Arabic Inflection -- 7.5.Labile Valency in Borrowed Verbs -- 7.6.Stative Verbs and Adjectives -- 8.1.Adjectives -- 8.2.Collective Nouns versus Unity Nouns -- 8.3.Arabic Participles -- 8.4.Diminutives -- 8.5.Adjectival Grading -- 9.1.Personal Pronouns -- 9.1.1.Arabic Pronominal Forms with Borrowed Particles -- 9.1.2.Arabic Pronouns Bound to Borrowed Verbs -- 9.1.3.Arabic Independent Pronouns after the Presentative Particle ha -- 9.1.4.Arabic Reciprocal Pronouns -- 9.2.Interrogatives -- 9.2.1.Interrogatives 'Who' and 'What' -- 9.2.2.Adverbial Interrogatives -- 9.2.3.'Which' --^ 9.2.4.Yes/No Questions -- 9.3.Numerals -- 9.3.1.Cardinal Numbers -- 9.3.2.Fractions -- 9.3.3.Ordinal Numbers -- 9.4.Universal Quantifiers -- 10.1.Deixis -- 10.2.Negation -- 10.2.1.Verbal Negation -- 10.2.1.1.The Use of Arabic Pre-Verbal Negators in Berber -- 10.2.1.2.The Second Part of the Negation -- 10.2.2.Negation of Non-Verbal Predicates -- 11.1.Coordination -- 11.1.1.NP Coordination -- 11.1.2.Clause Coordination -- 11.1.2.1.Borrowing of the Arabic Conjunction w~u -- 11.1.2.2.Clause Coordination by Means of d -- 11.1.2.3.d as a Clause Coordinator only before NPs -- 11.1.3.Conjunction of Subordinate Clauses -- 11.1.4.Conclusions on Coordination -- 11.1.5.Disjunction -- 11.1.6.Adversative Conjunctions -- 11.1.7.General Assessment on Types of Coordination -- 11.2.Subordinating Conjunctions -- 11.2.1.The System of Temporal and Conditional Subordination -- 11.2.2.The Impact of Arabic -- 12.1.General Overview of the Systems --^ 12.2.The Difference between Relative Constructions with Definite Heads and Those with an Indefinite Head -- 12.3.The Use of Resumptive Pronouns in Non-Paratactic RCs -- 12.4.The Use of Special Elements Introducing RCs -- 12.4.1.Pronominal Elements as RC Markers -- 12.4.2.The Specialisation of One Specific Deictic Clitic to the Head for Signalling the Following RC -- 12.4.3.The Extension of Interrogative Markers to RC Contexts and other Pronominal Solutions -- 12.4.4.The Introduction of a Dedicated Relative Marker Through Grammaticalization or Otherwise -- 12.5.Conclusions -- 13.1.General Characteristics: Phonology -- 13.2.General Characteristics: Morphology -- 13.3.General Characteristics: Syntax -- 13.4.General Characteristics: Lexicon -- 13.5.Comparison of Borrowing in Different Berber Varieties -- 13.6.A Characterization of Arabic Grammatical Borrowing in Berber -- 13.7.Arabic Influence on Berber and the Typology of Contact-Induced Change --^ 13.8.Arabic Borrowing in Berber and Language Mixing. by Maarten Kossmann, University of Leiden. Includes bibliographical references and index. The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber......Page 4 Contents......Page 6 Acknowledgements......Page 12 1 Introduction......Page 14 Abbreviations, Transcriptions and Glosses......Page 19 Transcription System......Page 23 2.1 The Afroasiatic Heritage......Page 26 2.2 Berber Classification......Page 29 The Major Blocks of Berber Varieties......Page 30 2. Tuareg......Page 31 3. South-Central Morocco......Page 32 5. Zenatic......Page 34 6. Kabyle......Page 37 10. Awdjila (aka Augila)......Page 38 2.3 Maghribian Arabic and the Arabicization of Northern Africa......Page 39 2.4 Sociolinguistics of Berber-Arabic Contact......Page 42 Diglossia......Page 55 2.6 The Dating of Arabic-Based Berber Innovations......Page 58 3.1 Proto-Berber......Page 64 3.2 Pre-Roman Loans in Berber......Page 69 3.3 Latin Loans in Berber......Page 75 The Names of the Solar Calendar......Page 85 3.4 Early Islamic Terminology......Page 89 Newly Coined Terms......Page 91 Re-utilized Christian Terms......Page 93 Early Loans from Arabic......Page 95 4.1 Introduction......Page 100 4.1.1 Core Borrowings vs. Cultural Borrowings......Page 101 4.1.2 Additive Borrowing......Page 102 4.1.4 Diglossic Insertion......Page 107 4.2 Quantitative Approaches......Page 110 4.3 Text Frequency of Arabic Borrowings......Page 111 4.4 Borrowing Frequency in the Lexicon: The LWT Sample......Page 114 4.5 Borrowing Frequency in the Lexicon: Core Vocabulary......Page 117 4.5.1 Borrowing Lists of Basic Vocabulary......Page 118 4.5.2 Borrowing Rates in a Number of Standard Lists......Page 120 4.5.3 Borrowing in the Leipzig-Jakarta List: Quantitative Results......Page 121 4.5.4 Borrowing in the Leipzig-Jakarta List: Detailed Lexical Study......Page 128 4.6.1 Body Parts......Page 139 4.6.2 Natural Phenomena......Page 142 4.6.3 Insects and other Small Non-Vertebrates......Page 143 4.6.4 Metals......Page 145 4.6.5 Cultivated Plants......Page 148 4.6.6 Domestic Animals......Page 161 4.7 Verbs......Page 171 4.7.1 Verbs in Basic Word Lists......Page 172 4.7.3 Verbs of the Household Context......Page 173 4.7.5 Verbs of the Market Context......Page 175 4.7.6 Movement Verbs......Page 176 4.7.7 Verbs of Cognition and Emotion......Page 177 4.7.8 Transitive Actions with (Normally) Inanimate Objects......Page 178 5.1 Phonological Systems of Berber and Arabic......Page 182 5.2 The Earliest Stratum of Loanwords......Page 189 5.3 Later Loanwords......Page 190 5.3.1 Arabic Loans and Berber-Internal Innovations......Page 191 5.3.2 The Integration of Foreign Phonemes......Page 196 5.3.2.1 The Fate of ṣ and ṣṣ......Page 197 5.3.2.2 The Fate of ḍ and ṭ and Their Long Counterparts......Page 199 5.3.2.3 The Fate of Arabic q......Page 202 5.3.2.5 Some Rare Berber Consonants Strengthened by Arabic......Page 209 5.4 The Use of Arabic Sounds in Non-Arabic Words......Page 212 6.1 General Overview of the Two Systems......Page 216 6.2 Integrated Borrowings......Page 220 6.2.1 Non-Integrated Borrowings: General Features......Page 221 6.2.2 Paradigmatic Gender Relationship in Non-Integrated Borrowings......Page 228 6.3 Integrated Borrowings with Retention of the Arabic Article......Page 236 6.4 Non-integrated Borrowings Lacking the Arabic Article......Page 239 6.5 The Distribution of Integrated and Non-Integrated Borrowings over the Lexicon......Page 243 6.6 Comparing Berber Morphology and Non-Integrated Morphology......Page 247 7.1 General Morphological Facts......Page 250 7.2 Arabic Derived Forms in Berber......Page 253 7.3 The Insertion of Arabic Verb Shapes into Berber Morphology......Page 256 7.3.1.1 CCC Verbs and Longer Stems......Page 257 7.3.1.2 C1C2C2 Verbs......Page 259 7.3.1.3 Arabic Aspectual Apophony in Borrowed Arabic Verbs without a Plain Vowel......Page 263 7.3.2.1 First Stem Verbs......Page 266 7.3.2.2 Other Stem Forms......Page 270 7.3.2.3 Vowel-final Arabic Verbs and the Question of Imperfect Vocalization......Page 272 7.3.3.1 Verbs with Initial Ɂa......Page 274 7.3.3.2 Verbs with an Internal Vowel, Excepting CVC Verbs......Page 275 7.3.3.3 CVC Verbs......Page 278 7.4 Taking over Arabic Inflection......Page 283 7.5 Labile Valency in Borrowed Verbs......Page 285 7.6 Stative Verbs and Adjectives......Page 288 8.1 Adjectives......Page 292 8.2 Collective Nouns Versus Unit Nouns......Page 295 8.3 Arabic Participles......Page 297 8.4 Diminutives......Page 299 8.5 Adjectival Grading......Page 300 9.1 Personal Pronouns......Page 304 9.1.1 Arabic Pronominal Forms with Borrowed Particles......Page 305 9.1.4 Arabic Reciprocal Pronouns......Page 309 9.2.1 Interrogatives ‘who’ and ‘what’......Page 310 9.2.2 Adverbial Interrogatives......Page 315 9.2.3 ‘which’......Page 317 9.2.4 Yes/No Questions......Page 318 9.3.1 Cardinal Numbers......Page 319 9.3.2 Fractions......Page 324 9.4 Universal Quantifiers......Page 325 10.1 Deixis......Page 334 10.2 Negation......Page 337 10.2.1 Verbal Negation......Page 338 10.2.1.1 The Use of Arabic Pre-Verbal Negators in Berber......Page 342 10.2.1.2 The Second Part of the Negation......Page 345 10.2.2 Negation of Non-Verbal Predicates......Page 348 11.1 Coordination......Page 350 11.1.1 NP Coordination......Page 351 11.1.2 Clause Coordination......Page 352 11.1.2.1 Borrowing of the Arabic Conjunction w ~ u......Page 353 11.1.2.2 Clause Coordination by Means of d......Page 355 11.1.2.3 d as a Clause Coordinator Only before NPs......Page 356 11.1.4 Conclusions on Coordination......Page 359 11.1.5 Disjunction......Page 361 11.1.6 Adversative Conjunctions......Page 363 11.2 Subordinating Conjunctions......Page 364 11.2.1 The System of Temporal and Conditional Subordination......Page 365 11.2.2 The Impact of Arabic......Page 375 12.1 General Overview of the Systems......Page 382 12.2 The Difference between Relative Constructions with Definite Heads and Those with an Indefinite Head......Page 384 12.3 The Use of Resumptive Pronouns in Non-Paratactic RCs......Page 387 12.4 The Use of Special Elements Introducing RCs......Page 396 12.4.1 Pronominal Elements as RC Markers......Page 397 12.4.2 The Specialisation of One Specific Deictic Clitic to the Head for Signalling the Following RC......Page 405 12.4.3 The Extension of Interrogative Markers to RC Contexts and other Pronominal Solutions......Page 409 12.4.4 The Introduction of a Dedicated Relative Marker Through Grammaticalization or Otherwise......Page 410 12.5 Conclusions......Page 414 13.1 General Characteristics: Phonology......Page 422 13.2 General Characteristics: Morphology......Page 423 13.3 General Characteristics: Syntax......Page 429 13.4 General Characteristics: Lexicon......Page 430 13.5 Comparison of Borrowing in Different Berber Varieties......Page 431 13.6 A Characterization of Arabic Grammatical Borrowing in Berber......Page 435 13.7 Arabic Influence on Berber and the Typology of Contact-Induced Change......Page 440 13.8 Arabic Borrowing in Berber and Language Mixing......Page 444 References......Page 446 a. Subjects......Page 466 b. Languages......Page 468 c. Lexemes......Page 470 The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber 4 Contents 6 Acknowledgements 12 1 Introduction 14 A Note on Terminology 19 Abbreviations, Transcriptions and Glosses 19 Transcription System 23 2 Berber and Arabic 26 2.1 The Afroasiatic Heritage 26 2.2 Berber Classification 29 The Major Blocks of Berber Varieties 30 1. Zenaga of Mauritania and Tetserrét of Niger 31 2. Tuareg 31 3. South-Central Morocco 32 4. Northwestern Moroccan Berber 34 5. Zenatic 34 6. Kabyle 37 7. Djebel Nefusa 38 8. The Libyan-Egyptian Oases 38 9. Ghadames 38 10. Awdjila (aka Augila) 38 2.3 Maghribian Arabic and the Arabicization of Northern Africa 39 2.4 Sociolinguistics of Berber-Arabic Contact 42 Diglossia 55 2.5 Diglossia and the Arabic Influence on Berber 58 2.6 The Dating of Arabic-Based Berber Innovations 58 3 Berber in Contact: The Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Periods 64 3.1 Proto-Berber 64 3.2 Pre-Roman Loans in Berber 69 3.3 Latin Loans in Berber 75 The Names of the Solar Calendar 85 3.4 Early Islamic Terminology 89 Newly Coined Terms 91 Re-utilized Christian Terms 93 Early Loans from Arabic 95 4 Lexicon 100 4.1 Introduction 100 4.1.1 Core Borrowings vs. Cultural Borrowings 101 4.1.2 Additive Borrowing 102 4.1.3 Substitutive Borrowing 107 4.1.4 Diglossic Insertion 107 4.2 Quantitative Approaches 110 4.3 Text Frequency of Arabic Borrowings 111 4.4 Borrowing Frequency in the Lexicon: The LWT Sample 114 4.5 Borrowing Frequency in the Lexicon: Core Vocabulary 117 4.5.1 Borrowing Lists of Basic Vocabulary 118 4.5.2 Borrowing Rates in a Number of Standard Lists 120 4.5.3 Borrowing in the Leipzig-Jakarta List: Quantitative Results 121 4.5.4 Borrowing in the Leipzig-Jakarta List: Detailed Lexical Study 128 4.6 Borrowings in Core Vocabulary: A Sample Survey in Nouns 139 4.6.1 Body Parts 139 4.6.2 Natural Phenomena 142 4.6.3 Insects and other Small Non-Vertebrates 143 4.6.4 Metals 145 4.6.5 Cultivated Plants 148 4.6.6 Domestic Animals 161 4.7 Verbs 171 4.7.1 Verbs in Basic Word Lists 172 4.7.2 Verbs according to Activity Types and Contexts 173 4.7.3 Verbs of the Household Context 173 4.7.4 Verbs of Agriculture 175 4.7.5 Verbs of the Market Context 175 4.7.6 Movement Verbs 176 4.7.7 Verbs of Cognition and Emotion 177 4.7.8 Transitive Actions with (Normally) Inanimate Objects 178 5 Phonology 182 5.1 Phonological Systems of Berber and Arabic 182 5.2 The Earliest Stratum of Loanwords 189 5.3 Later Loanwords 190 5.3.1 Arabic Loans and Berber-Internal Innovations 191 5.3.2 The Integration of Foreign Phonemes 196 5.3.2.1 The Fate of ṣ and ṣṣ 197 5.3.2.2 The Fate of ḍ and ṭ and Their Long Counterparts 199 5.3.2.3 The Fate of Arabic q 202 5.3.2.4 The Fate of Arabic x, ḥ and ɛ 209 5.3.2.5 Some Rare Berber Consonants Strengthened by Arabic 209 5.4 The Use of Arabic Sounds in Non-Arabic Words 212 6 Nominal Morphology 216 6.1 General Overview of the Two Systems 216 6.2 Integrated Borrowings 220 6.2.1 Non-Integrated Borrowings: General Features 221 6.2.2 Paradigmatic Gender Relationship in Non-Integrated Borrowings 228 6.3 Integrated Borrowings with Retention of the Arabic Article 236 6.4 Non-integrated Borrowings Lacking the Arabic Article 239 6.5 The Distribution of Integrated and Non-Integrated Borrowings over the Lexicon 243 6.6 Comparing Berber Morphology and Non-Integrated Morphology 247 7 Verbal Morphology 250 7.1 General Morphological Facts 250 7.2 Arabic Derived Forms in Berber 253 7.3 The Insertion of Arabic Verb Shapes into Berber Morphology 256 7.3.1 The Treatment of Verbs without a Plain Vowel in Arabic 257 7.3.1.1 CCC Verbs and Longer Stems 257 7.3.1.2 C1C2C2 Verbs 259 7.3.1.3 Arabic Aspectual Apophony in Borrowed Arabic Verbs without a Plain Vowel 263 7.3.2 The Integration of Arabic Verbs with a Final Vowel 266 7.3.2.1 First Stem Verbs 266 7.3.2.2 Other Stem Forms 270 7.3.2.3 Vowel-final Arabic Verbs and the Question of Imperfect Vocalization 272 7.3.3 Integrating Arabic Verbs with an Initial or Internal Plain Vowel 274 7.3.3.1 Verbs with Initial Ɂa 274 7.3.3.2 Verbs with an Internal Vowel, Excepting CVC Verbs 275 7.3.3.3 CVC Verbs 278 7.4 Taking over Arabic Inflection 283 7.5 Labile Valency in Borrowed Verbs 285 7.6 Stative Verbs and Adjectives 288 8 Borrowing of Morphological Categories 292 8.1 Adjectives 292 8.2 Collective Nouns Versus Unit Nouns 295 8.3 Arabic Participles 297 8.4 Diminutives 299 8.5 Adjectival Grading 300 9 Other Categories: Pronouns and Quantifiers 304 9.1 Personal Pronouns 304 9.1.1 Arabic Pronominal Forms with Borrowed Particles 305 9.1.2 Arabic Pronouns Bound to Borrowed Verbs 309 9.1.3 Arabic Independent Pronouns after the Presentative Particle ha 309 9.1.4 Arabic Reciprocal Pronouns 309 9.2 Interrogatives 310 9.2.1 Interrogatives ‘who’ and ‘what’ 310 9.2.2 Adverbial Interrogatives 315 9.2.3 ‘which’ 317 9.2.4 Yes/No Questions 318 9.3 Numerals 319 9.3.1 Cardinal Numbers 319 9.3.2 Fractions 324 9.3.3 Ordinal Numbers 325 9.4 Universal Quantifiers 325 10 Syntax: Simple Clause 334 10.1 Deixis 334 10.2 Negation 337 10.2.1 Verbal Negation 338 10.2.1.1 The Use of Arabic Pre-Verbal Negators in Berber 342 10.2.1.2 The Second Part of the Negation 345 10.2.2 Negation of Non-Verbal Predicates 348 11 Syntax: Complex Sentences 350 11.1 Coordination 350 11.1.1 NP Coordination 351 11.1.2 Clause Coordination 352 11.1.2.1 Borrowing of the Arabic Conjunction w ~ u 353 11.1.2.2 Clause Coordination by Means of d 355 11.1.2.3 d as a Clause Coordinator Only before NPs 356 11.1.3 Conjunction of Subordinate Clauses 359 11.1.4 Conclusions on Coordination 359 11.1.5 Disjunction 361 11.1.6 Adversative Conjunctions 363 11.1.7 General Assessment on Types of Coordination 364 11.2 Subordinating Conjunctions 364 11.2.1 The System of Temporal and Conditional Subordination 365 11.2.2 The Impact of Arabic 375 12 Syntax: Relative Clauses 382 12.1 General Overview of the Systems 382 12.2 The Difference between Relative Constructions with Definite Heads and Those with an Indefinite Head 384 12.3 The Use of Resumptive Pronouns in Non-Paratactic RCs 387 12.4 The Use of Special Elements Introducing RCs 396 12.4.1 Pronominal Elements as RC Markers 397 12.4.2 The Specialisation of One Specific Deictic Clitic to the Head for Signalling the Following RC 405 12.4.3 The Extension of Interrogative Markers to RC Contexts and other Pronominal Solutions 409 12.4.4 The Introduction of a Dedicated Relative Marker Through Grammaticalization or Otherwise 410 12.5 Conclusions 414 13 Conclusions 422 13.1 General Characteristics: Phonology 422 13.2 General Characteristics: Morphology 423 13.3 General Characteristics: Syntax 429 13.4 General Characteristics: Lexicon 430 13.5 Comparison of Borrowing in Different Berber Varieties 431 13.6 A Characterization of Arabic Grammatical Borrowing in Berber 435 13.7 Arabic Influence on Berber and the Typology of Contact-Induced Change 440 13.8 Arabic Borrowing in Berber and Language Mixing 444 References 446 Index 466 a. Subjects 466 b. Languages 468 c. Lexemes 470