The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor

this 2008 Book, Derived From The Acclaimed Cambridge Encyclopedia Of The World's Ancient Languages, Describes The Ancient Languages Of Asia Minor, For The Convenience Of Students And Specialists Working In That Area. Each Chapter Of The Work Focuses On An Individual Language Or, In Some Instances, A Set Of Closely Related Varieties Of A Language. Providing A Full Descriptive Presentation, Each Of These Chapters Examines The Writing System(s), Phonology, Morphology, Syntax And Lexicon Of That Language, And Places The Language Within Its Proper Linguistic And Historical Context. The Volume Brings Together An International Array Of Scholars, Each A Leading Specialist In Ancient Language Study. While Designed Primarily For Scholars And Students Of Linguistics, This Work Will Prove Invaluable To All Whose Studies Take Them Into The Realm Of Ancient Language. Cover 1 Half-title 3 Title 5 Copyright 6 Contents 7 Figures 8 Tables 9 Map 10 Contributors 11 Notes on numbering and cross-referencing 12 Abbreviations 13 Preface 17 Preliminary remarks 17 Format and conventions 18 Further acknowledgments 19 Preface to the first edition 21 Chapter 1 Language in ancient Asia Minor: an introduction 23 Bibliography 27 Chapter 2 Hittite 28 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 28 2. WRITING SYSTEMS 29 3. PHONOLOGY 32 3.1 Graphic considerations 32 3.2 Consonants 32 3.3 Vowels 33 3.4 Phonological variation 33 3.5 Consonant clusters 34 3.6 Vowel length 34 3.7 Accent 34 3.8 Diachronic developments 34 3.8.1 Stops 34 3.8.2 Laryngeals 35 3.8.3 Sonorants 35 4. MORPHOLOGY 36 4.1 Word formation 36 4.2 Nominal morphology 36 4.2.1 Gender 36 4.2.2 Number 37 4.2.3 Case 37 4.2.4 Adjectives 38 4.2.5 Nominal stem-classes 38 4.3 Pronouns 39 4.4 Verbal morphology 40 4.4.1 Person 41 4.4.2 Number 41 4.4.3 Voice 41 4.4.4 Ergativity 41 4.4.5 Tense-aspect 42 4.4.6 Mood 42 4.4.7 Verb conjugation 43 4.4.8 Verbal stem-classes 43 4.4.9 Origin of the hi-conjugation 44 4.4.10 Nonfinite verbals 45 4.5 Derivational morphology 45 4.6 Compounds 46 4.7 Numerals 46 5. SYNTAX 47 5.1 Word order and clause structure 47 5.2 Agreement 49 5.3 Syntactic innovation 49 6. LEXICON 50 Bibliography and further reading 51 References 51 Further reading 52 Chapter 3 Luvian 54 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 54 2. WRITING SYSTEMS 55 2.1 Cuneiform Luvian 55 2.2 Hieroglyphic Luvian 55 3. PHONOLOGY 57 3.1 Consonants 57 3.1.1 Diachronic variation 58 3.2 Vowels 58 3.3 Synchronic variation 58 3.4 Phonotaxis 58 4. MORPHOLOGY 58 4.1 Nominal morphology 58 4.2 Pronouns 59 4.3 Verbal morphology 59 4.4 Derivational morphology 60 4.5 Compounds 60 4.6 Numerals 60 5. SYNTAX 60 5.1 Word order and clause structure 60 5.2 Syntactic miscellanea 60 6. LEXICON 61 7. READING LIST 61 Bibliography 61 Chapter 4 Palaic 63 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 63 2. WRITING SYSTEM 63 3. PHONOLOGY 64 3.1 Consonants -1 3.1.1 Stops 64 3.1.2 Fricatives 64 3.2 Vowels 65 3.3 Synchronic variation 65 3.4 Phonotaxis 65 4. MORPHOLOGY 66 4.1 Nominal morphology 66 4.2 Pronouns 66 4.3 Verbal morphology 66 4.4 Morphological miscellanea 67 4.5 Compounds 67 5. SYNTAX 67 5.1 Word order and clause structure 67 5.2 Agreement 67 5.3 Clitics 68 6. LEXICON 68 7. READING LIST 68 Bibliography 68 Chapter 5 Lycian 69 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 69 2. WRITING SYSTEM 70 3. PHONOLOGY 70 3.1 Consonants 70 3.1.1 Stops 71 3.1.2 Affricate and fricatives 72 3.1.3 Sonorants 73 3.1.4 Consonant gemination 73 3.2 Vowels 73 3.2.1 Vowel assimilation 73 3.2.2 Syncope 74 3.3 Phonotaxis 74 4. MORPHOLOGY 74 4.1 Nominal morphology 74 4.2 Pronouns 75 4.3 Verbal morphology 75 4.4 Compounds 76 5. SYNTAX 76 5.1 Word order and clause structure 76 5.2 Clitics 76 5.3 Syntactic miscellanea 76 6. LEXICON 77 7. READING LIST 77 Bibliography 77 Chapter 6 Lydian 79 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 79 2. WRITING SYSTEM 80 3. PHONOLOGY 81 3.1 Consonants 81 3.1.1 Stops 81 3.1.2 Fricatives and affricates 81 3.1.3 Sonorants 82 3.2 Vowels 82 3.3 Accent 82 3.4 Synchronic variation 83 3.5 Phonotaxis 83 4. MORPHOLOGY 83 4.1 Nominal morphology 83 4.2 Pronouns 84 4.3 Verbal morphology 84 5. SYNTAX 84 5.1 Word order and clause structure 84 5.2 Clitics 85 5.3 Syntactic miscellanea 85 6. LEXICON 85 7. READING LIST 85 Bibliography 85 Chapter 7 Carian 87 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 87 2. WRITING SYSTEM 87 3. PHONOLOGY 89 3.1 Consonants 89 3.1.1 Obstruents 89 3.1.2 Sonorants 89 3.2 Vowels 89 4. MORPHOLOGY 89 4.1 Nominal morphology 89 4.2 Pronouns 90 4.3 Verbal morphology 90 5. SYNTAX 90 6. LEXICON 90 7. READING LIST 90 Bibliography 91 Chapter 8 Phrygian 92 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 92 1.1 Paleo-Phrygian 93 1.1.1 Additional evidence 93 1.2 Middle Phrygian? 94 1.3 Neo-Phrygian 94 1.4 Greek evidence 95 1.5 Phrygian within the Indo-European family 95 2. WRITING SYSTEMS 96 2.1 Paleo-Phrygian 96 2.2 Neo-Phrygian 96 3. PHONOLOGY 96 3.1 Paleo-Phrygian consonants 97 3.1.1 Obstruents 97 3.1.2 Sonorants 97 3.2 Neo-Phrygian consonants 97 3.3 Paleo-Phrygian vowels 98 3.4 Neo-Phrygian vowels 98 3.5 Middle Phrygian vowels 98 4. MORPHOLOGY 99 4.1 Nominal morphology 99 4.1.1 Thematic stems 99 4.1.2 a(:)-stems 99 4.1.3 Athematic stems 99 4.2 Pronouns 99 4.3 Verbal morphology 100 5. SYNTAX 100 5.1 Word order 100 5.2 Case usage 101 6. LEXICON 101 Bibliography 102 Chapter 9 Hurrian 104 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 104 1.1 History of the language and its speakers 104 1.2 Sources 105 1.3 Dialects 106 2. WRITING SYSTEMS 106 2.1 Syllabic cuneiform 106 2.2 Alphabetic cuneiform 107 3. PHONOLOGY 107 3.1 Consonants 107 3.1.1 Obstruents 108 3.1.2 Sonorants 108 3.2 Vowels 108 3.3 Phonotaxis 108 3.4 Accent 109 3.5 Phonological processes 109 3.5.1 Anaptyxis 109 3.5.2 Segment loss 109 3.5.3 Vowel contraction 109 3.5.4 Assimilation 109 3.5.5 Metathesis 110 4. MORPHOLOGY 110 4.1 Word classes 110 4.2 Roots 110 4.3 Root-complements 110 4.4 Nominal morphology 111 4.4.1 Nominalization of the root 111 4.4.2 Noun-formation suffixes 111 4.4.3 Thematic stems 113 4.4.3.1 i-stems 113 4.4.3.2 a-stems 113 4.4.3.3 o/u-stems 113 4.4.4 Athematic stems 114 4.4.5 Honorifics 114 4.4.6 Derivational suffixes 114 4.4.7 Relational suffixes 115 4.4.8 Possessive suffixes 116 4.4.9 Case and number suffixes 116 4.4.10 Pronouns 117 4.4.10.1 Enclitic personal pronouns 117 4.4.10.2 Independent personal pronouns 118 4.4.10.3 Deictic pronouns 118 4.4.10.4 Interrogative and relative pronouns 119 4.5 Verbal morphology 119 4.5.1 Valence 119 4.5.2 Modes of action 119 4.5.3 Undefined verbal suffixes 119 4.5.4 Tenses 120 4.5.5 The marker of a kind of direction(?) -t- 120 4.5.6 “Class-markers” (suffixes of valence) 120 4.5.7 Negation 120 4.5.8 Ergative person suffixes 120 4.5.9 Old Hurrian person suffixes 120 4.5.10 Indicative paradigms 121 4.5.11 Stative verbs 121 4.5.12 Nonindicativemoods 121 4.5.12.1 Imperative and cohortative 122 4.5.12.2 Jussive 122 4.5.12.3 Modal -l- 122 4.5.12.4 Optative 122 4.5.12.5 Potential 122 4.5.12.6 Conditional 123 4.5.12.7 Desiderative 123 4.5.12.8 Other possible modalities 123 4.5.13 Verbal nouns 123 4.5.13.1 Infinitives 123 4.5.13.2 Nominalized verb forms 123 4.6 Particles 123 4.6.1 Introductory particles 123 4.6.2 Adverbs 123 4.6.3 Interjections 124 4.6.4 Enclitic particles 124 4.7 Numerals 124 4.7.1 Cardinals and ordinals 124 4.7.2 Other numerals 124 5. SYNTAX 125 5.1 Word order 125 5.2 Agreement 125 5.3 Coordinate and subordinate clauses 126 6. LEXICON 126 Bibliography 127 Chapter 10 Urartian 128 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 128 1.1 History of the language and its speakers 128 1.2 Sources 128 1.3 Dialects 129 2. WRITING SYSTEMS 129 2.1 Cuneiform script 129 2.2 Hieroglyphic script 130 3. PHONOLOGY 130 3.1 Consonants 130 3.2 Vowels 131 3.3 Phonotaxis 131 3.4 Accent 132 3.5 Phonological processes 132 3.5.1 Anaptyxis 132 3.5.2 Syncope 132 3.5.3 Vowel contraction 132 3.5.4 Assimilation 133 3.5.5 Metathesis 133 4. MORPHOLOGY 133 4.1 Word structure 133 4.2 Nominal morphology 133 4.2.1 Nominalization of the root 133 4.2.2 Noun-formation and derivational suffixes 134 4.2.3 Thematic stems 135 4.2.4 Relational suffixes -ne- and -na- 135 4.2.5 Possessive suffixes 135 4.2.6 Case and number suffixes 135 4.2.7 Pronouns 136 4.2.7.1 Possessive pronouns 136 4.2.7.2 Pronominal suffixes 136 4.2.7.3 Independent personal pronouns 136 4.2.7.4 Deictic pronouns 137 4.2.7.5 Relative pronoun 137 4.3 Verbal morphology 137 4.3.1 Valence 138 4.3.2 Undefined verbal suffixes 138 4.3.3 “Class-markers” (suffixes of valence) 138 4.3.4 Person suffixes 139 4.3.4.1 Intransitive verbs 139 4.3.4.2 Stative verbs 139 4.3.4.3 Transitive verbs 139 4.3.4.4 The verb al- 140 4.3.5 Nonindicativemoods 140 4.3.5.1 Imperative 140 4.3.5.2 Jussive 140 4.3.5.3 Modal -l- 140 4.3.5.4 Optative 140 4.3.5.5 Conditional 141 4.3.5.6 Desiderative 141 4.3.5.7 Additional moods 141 4.4 Particles 142 4.4.1 Conjunctions 142 4.4.2 Adverbs 142 4.4.3 Negative particles 142 4.5 Numerals 142 5. SYNTAX 142 5.1 Word order 142 5.2 Agreement 144 5.3 Coordinate and subordinate clauses 144 6. LEXICON 144 Bibliography 145 Chapter 11 Classical Armenian 147 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 147 2. WRITING SYSTEM 148 3. PHONOLOGY 149 3.1 Consonants 149 3.2 Vowels 151 3.3 Phonotactics 152 3.4 Historical phonology 152 4. MORPHOLOGY 153 4.1 Word formation 153 4.2 Nominal declensions 154 4.3 Pronominal declensions 156 4.4 Verbal conjugations 157 4.4.1 Present tense 158 4.4.2 Aorist tense 159 4.5 Nonfinite verbal formations 159 4.6 Derivational morphology 160 4.7 Compounds 160 4.8 Numerals 161 5. SYNTAX 161 5.1 Word order 162 5.2 Concord 162 5.3 Case usage 163 5.4 Cliticized articles 163 5.5 Syntax of the past participle 164 6. LEXICON 164 Bibliography 165 Introduction, grammars and collections of articles 165 Script 165 Phonology 166 Morphology 166 Syntax 166 Dictionaries and lexical studies 166 Chapter 12 Early Georgian 168 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXTS 168 2. WRITING SYSTEM 169 3. PHONOLOGY 171 3.1 Phonemic inventory 171 3.2 Allophonic variation 171 3.3 Phonotaxis 171 4. MORPHOLOGY 172 4.1 Word structure 172 4.2 Nominal morphology 172 4.2.1 Nominal cases 173 4.2.1.1 Absolutive and ergative cases 173 4.2.1.2 Long and short case forms 173 4.2.1.3 Dative case 173 4.2.1.4 Genitive case 173 4.2.1.5 Instrumental case 174 4.2.1.6 Adverbial case 174 4.2.1.7 Vocative case 174 4.2.2 Plural marking 174 4.2.3 Definite articles 174 4.2.4 Pronouns 175 4.2.4.1 Personal pronouns and proper names 175 4.2.4.2 Interrogative/indefinite pronouns 175 4.2.4.3 Relative pronoun 175 4.2.4.4 Demonstrative pronouns 175 4.3 Verbal morphology 176 4.3.1 Verb classes 176 4.3.1.1 Transitive class 176 4.3.1.2 Intransitive class 176 4.3.1.3 Atelic verb class 177 4.3.2 Paradigmseries 177 4.3.2.1 Series II (“aorist series”) 177 4.3.2.2 Series I (“present series”) 177 4.3.2.3 Series III (“perfect series”) 178 4.3.3 Composition of the verb 179 4.3.4 Verb paradigms and their functions 182 4.3.4.1 Paradigm Series I 182 4.3.4.2 Paradigm Series II 184 4.3.4.3 Paradigm Series III 184 4.3.5 Nonfinite verbals 185 4.3.5.1 Verbal noun 185 4.3.5.2 Participles 185 4.4 Diachronic morphological developments 185 4.5 Numerals 186 5. SYNTAX 186 5.1 Word order 186 5.2 Coordination and subordination 186 5.3 Agreement 187 6. LEXICON 187 Abbreviations 187 Linguistic terms 187 Bibliography 188 Sources 188 Appendix 1 The cuneiform script 189 Appendix 2 Full tables of contents from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of theWorld’s Ancient Languages, and from the other volumes in the paperback series 196 Table of contents of WAL 196 Table of contents of The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas 198 Table of contents of The Ancient Languages of Europe 198 Table of contents of The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum 199 Table of contents of The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia 200 Index of general subjects 201 Index of grammar and linguistics 204 Index of languages 206 Index of named linguistic laws and principles 208 'This book, derived from the acclaimed Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages, describes the ancient languages of Asia Minor, for the convenience of students and specialists working in that area. Each chapter of the work focuses on an individual language or, in some instances, a set of closely related varieties of a language. Providing a full descriptive presentation, each of these chapters examines the writing system(s), phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon of that language, and places the language within its proper linguistic and historical context. The volume brings together an international array of scholars, each a leading specialist in ancient language study. While designed primarily for scholars and students of linguistics, this work will prove invaluable to all whose studies take them into the realm of ancient language.'-- Quatrième de couverture 'This book, derived from the acclaimed Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages, describes the ancient languages of Asia Minor, for the convenience of students and specialists working in that area. Each chapter of the work focuses on an individual language or, in some instances, a set of closely related varieties of a language. Providing a full descriptive presentation, each of these chapters examines the writing system(s), phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon of that language, and places the language within its proper linguistic and historical context. The volume brings together an international array of scholars, each a leading specialist in ancient language study. While designed primarily for scholars and students of linguistics, this work will prove invaluable to all whose studies take them into the realm of ancient language.'--Back cover