The 100 Most Influential Scientists of All Time (The Britannica Guide to the World's Most Influential People)

Leonardo da Vinci's study of mechanics led to the creation of early prototypes of flying machines and submarines. Biologist Carolus Linnaeus pioneered the hierarchal system of taxonomic classification in use today, Barbara McClintock's genetics research garnered her the Nobel Prize in Medicine. The detailed profiles of these and many other notable scientists collected in these pages are bound to fascinate and inspire readers. TITLE......Page 3 COPYRIGHT......Page 4 CONTENTS......Page 5 INTRODUCTION......Page 8 ASCLEPIUS......Page 17 LIFE AND WORKS......Page 18 HIPPOCRATIC OATH......Page 20 ARISTOTLE......Page 22 PHYSICS AND METAPHYSICS......Page 24 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE......Page 25 PLINY THE ELDER......Page 26 INFLUENCE......Page 28 PTOLEMY......Page 29 ANATOMICAL AND MEDICAL STUDIES......Page 32 INFLUENCE......Page 34 AVICENNA......Page 36 ROGER BACON......Page 37 UNIVERSITY AND SCIENTIFIC CAREER......Page 38 THE ORDER OF FRIARS MINOR......Page 39 LEONARDO DA VINCI......Page 40 ANATOMICAL STUDIES AND DRAWINGS......Page 41 MECHANICS AND COSMOLOGY......Page 44 LEONARDO AS ARTIST SCIENTIST......Page 45 NICOLAUS COPERNICUS......Page 46 SCIENCE OF THE STARS......Page 47 AN ORDERLY UNIVERSE......Page 48 EDUCATION......Page 50 CAREER AT BASEL......Page 52 CONTRIBUTIONS TO MEDICINE......Page 53 LIFE......Page 54 ASSESSMENT......Page 56 TYCHO BRAHE......Page 57 WORKS......Page 59 FINAL YEARS......Page 61 GALILEO......Page 63 TELESCOPIC DISCOVERIES......Page 64 GALILEO’S COPERNICANISM......Page 67 JOHANNES KEPLER......Page 69 DISCOVERY OF CIRCULATION......Page 74 RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES......Page 77 STUDIES OF REPRODUCTION......Page 78 ROBERT BOYLE......Page 79 ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK......Page 81 ROBERT HOOKE......Page 84 EDUCATION AND EXPEDITIONS......Page 85 IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONS......Page 87 THE OPTICKS......Page 88 THE PRINCIPIA......Page 92 THE “SEXUAL SYSTEM” OF CLASSIFICATION......Page 93 CLASSIFICATION BY “NATURAL CHARACTERS”......Page 94 BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE......Page 95 HENRY CAVENDISH......Page 97 RESEARCH IN CHEMISTRY......Page 98 EXPERIMENTS WITH ELECTRICITY......Page 100 WORK IN ELECTRICITY......Page 101 THE CHEMISTRY OF GASES......Page 102 THE DISCOVERY OF OXYGEN AND THE CHEMICAL REVOLUTION......Page 103 TURMOIL AND EXILE......Page 104 EARLY YEARS......Page 105 ELECTRICAL NATURE OF NERVE IMPULSE......Page 106 DISCOVERY OF URANUS......Page 108 THEORY OF THE EVOLUTION OF STARS......Page 110 THEORY OF THE STRUCTURE OF NEBULAE......Page 111 PNEUMATIC CHEMISTRY......Page 112 PHLOGISTON THEORY......Page 113 OXYGEN THEORY OF COMBUSTION......Page 114 PIERRE-SIMON LAPLACE......Page 116 EDWARD JENNER......Page 120 EARLY SCIENTIFIC CAREER......Page 123 ATOMIC THEORY......Page 124 GEORGES CUVIER......Page 126 EXPEDITION TO SOUTH AMERICA......Page 129 PROFESSIONAL LIFE IN PARIS......Page 131 LATER YEARS......Page 133 ANDRÉ-MARIE AMPÈRE......Page 134 EARLY LIFE......Page 135 FOUNDING OF ELECTROMAGNETISM......Page 136 EDUCATION AND EARLY CAREER......Page 138 MOLECULAR HYPOTHESIS OF COMBINING GASES......Page 139 LEGACY......Page 141 SEARCHING FOR LAWS OF NATURE......Page 142 OTHER RESEARCHES......Page 143 APPLIED SCIENCE......Page 144 SIR HUMPHRY DAVY......Page 145 EARLY CAREER......Page 146 MAJOR DISCOVERIES......Page 147 ELECTROCHEMICAL DUALISM......Page 149 STOICHIOMETRY......Page 150 ATOMISM AND NOMENCLATURE......Page 151 MINERALOGY......Page 152 A MAN OF INFLUENCE......Page 153 JOHN JAMES AUDUBON......Page 154 MICHAEL FARADAY......Page 155 EARLY CAREER......Page 157 THEORY OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY......Page 159 LATER LIFE......Page 161 NEW APPROACH TO GEOLOGY......Page 162 SCIENTIFIC EMINENCE......Page 163 LOUIS AGASSIZ......Page 164 EARLY CAREER......Page 165 ACTIVITIES IN THE UNITED STATES......Page 166 CHARLES DARWIN......Page 167 EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION......Page 168 ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES......Page 169 THE PATRIARCH IN HIS HOME LABORATORY......Page 172 THE PRIVATE MAN AND THE PUBLIC DEBATE......Page 173 TRAVELS AND EXPLORATION......Page 175 ADVOCACY OF EUGENICS......Page 176 REPUTATION......Page 177 EARLY CAREER......Page 178 EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD......Page 179 THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION......Page 181 REDISCOVERY......Page 182 LOUIS PASTEUR......Page 183 EARLY CAREER......Page 184 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION AND PASTEURIZATION......Page 185 RESEARCH ON SILKWORMS AND BREWING......Page 187 RESEARCH ON VACCINES......Page 188 EARLY TRAVELS......Page 189 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY......Page 190 WILLIAM THOMSON......Page 192 TRANSATLANTIC CABLE......Page 193 LATER CAREER......Page 194 JOSEPH LISTER......Page 195 EDUCATION......Page 196 WORK IN ANTISEPSIS......Page 197 JAMES CLERK MAXWELL......Page 199 RESEARCH ON ELECTROMAGNETISM......Page 200 OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHYSICS......Page 201 DMITRY IVANOVICH MENDELEYEV......Page 202 FORMULATION OF THE PERIODIC LAW......Page 203 OTHER SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS......Page 204 IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV......Page 205 LAWS OF CONDITIONED REFLEX......Page 206 ASSESSMENT......Page 207 A.A. MICHELSON......Page 208 ANTHRAX RESEARCH......Page 211 CONTRIBUTIONS TO GENERAL BACTERIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY......Page 212 STUDIES OF TUBERCULOSIS AND CHOLERA......Page 213 EARLY TRAINING......Page 215 SCREEN MEMORIES......Page 217 THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS......Page 218 FURTHER THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 219 PSYCHONEUROSES AND ANALYSIS......Page 220 ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO......Page 221 ENERGY AND THERMODYNAMICS......Page 222 PLANCK’S RADIATION LAW......Page 223 LATER CAREER......Page 225 NETTIE MARIA STEVENS......Page 226 WILLIAM BATESON......Page 227 PIERRE CURIE......Page 228 MARIE CURIE......Page 231 HENRIETTA SWAN LEAVITT......Page 235 UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE......Page 237 MCGILL UNIVERSITY......Page 238 UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER......Page 239 THE RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL......Page 240 RETURN TO CAMBRIDGE......Page 241 ASSOCIATION WITH FREUD......Page 242 CHARACTER OF HIS PSYCHOTHERAPY......Page 243 SPECIAL RELATIVITY......Page 244 GENERAL RELATIVITY......Page 246 DELAYED CONFIRMATION......Page 248 PERSONAL SORROW......Page 249 PROFESSIONAL ISOLATION......Page 250 ASSESSMENT......Page 251 ALFRED LOTHAR WEGENER......Page 252 SIR ALEXANDER FLEMING......Page 253 DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN......Page 254 BOHR ATOMIC MODEL......Page 256 COPENHAGEN INTERPRETATION OF QUANTUM MECHANICS......Page 257 SPLITTING THE ATOM......Page 258 THE ATOMIC BOMB......Page 259 ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER......Page 260 SELMAN ABRAHAM WAKSMAN......Page 263 EDWIN POWELL HUBBLE......Page 264 ELUCIDATION OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURES......Page 267 HUMANITARIAN ACTIVITIES......Page 269 LATER YEARS......Page 270 EUROPEAN CAREER......Page 271 AMERICAN CAREER......Page 274 MARGARET MEAD......Page 276 BARBARA MCCLINTOCK......Page 278 LOUIS S. B. LEAKEY......Page 280 MARY DOUGLAS LEAKEY......Page 282 RICHARD LEAKEY......Page 283 GEORGE GAMOW......Page 285 J. ROBERT OPPENHEIMER......Page 287 EARLY WORK......Page 291 FROM ATOMIC WARRIOR TO “POLITICAL PHYSICIST”......Page 292 MARIA GOEPPERT MAYER......Page 294 RACHEL CARSON......Page 295 JACQUES-YVES COUSTEAU......Page 297 LUIS W. ALVAREZ......Page 300 EARLY LIFE AND CAREER......Page 302 CODE BREAKER......Page 303 COMPUTER DESIGNER......Page 304 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE PIONEER......Page 305 NORMAN ERNEST BORLAUG......Page 306 JONAS EDWARD SALK......Page 308 SIR FRED HOYLE......Page 310 FRANCIS HARRY COMPTON CRICK......Page 311 JAMES DEWEY WATSON......Page 313 RICHARD P. FEYNMAN......Page 315 ROSALIND FRANKLIN......Page 318 EDWARD O. WILSON......Page 320 JANE GOODALL......Page 323 SIR HAROLD W. KROTO......Page 325 RICHARD E. SMALLEY......Page 326 ROBERT F. CURL, JR.......Page 327 STEPHEN JAY GOULD......Page 328 STEPHEN W. HAWKING......Page 330 J. CRAIG VENTER......Page 332 FRANCIS COLLINS......Page 335 STEVEN PINKER......Page 337 GLOSSARY......Page 339 FOR FURTHER READING......Page 341 INDEX......Page 343 Starting at the dawn of the 20th century, writers began experimenting with literary styles as never before. As perhaps the most far-reaching movement, Modernism swept across both the United States and Europe and has been embodied in the works of such writers as Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and T.S. Eliot. The existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, Samuel Beckett's absurdist writings, and the range of literary output from around the world also reflect the spirit of the period. The lives and works of these and other authors from across the globe are surveyed in this Leonardo da Vincis study of mechanics led to the creation of early prototypes of flying machines and submarines. Biologist Carolus Linnaeus pioneered the hierarchal system of taxonomic classification in use today. Barbara McClintocks genetics research garnered her the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Detailed profiles of these and many other notable scientists are thoughtfully collected within these pages, and are supported by stunning photographs and images. Readers will be fascinated and inspired for years to come.