Technologies in Biomedical and Life Sciences Education: Approaches and Evidence of Efficacy for Learning (Methods in Physiology)

This contributed volume focuses on understanding the educational strengths and weaknesses of mediated content (including media as a learning supplement), in comparison to traditional face-to-face learning. Each chapter includes research on, and a broad-brush summary of, approaches to combining life sciences education with educational technologies. The chapters are organized into four main sections, each of which focuses on a key question regarding the consequences of incorporating media into education. In this regard, the authors highlight how educational technology is both a bridge and barrier to student access and inclusivity. Further, they address the ongoing discussion as to whether students need to be present for lectures, and on how having agency in their own learning can improve both retention and conceptual understanding. To link the content to current events, the authors also shed light on the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic is having on the continuity of educational programs and on the growing importance of educational technologies. Consequently, the book offers life science educators valuable guidance on the technologies already available, and an outlook on what is yet to come. Foreword Reference Acknowledgments Contents Editors and Contributors Part I: Introduction and Educational Context Chapter 1: Introduction: Intentional Innovation in Educational Technology and Media to Promote Students ́ Holistic Development 1.1 Education Technology in the Biosciences: Practical Issues and a Research Problem 1.2 The Intentional Development of Technology in Teaching and Learning of Bioscience 1.2.1 The Impact of Computers and Educational Technology on Cognitive Processes 1.2.1.1 Technology Is Not Solely the Answer 1.2.1.2 How Students Learn with Technology Is the Answer 1.2.2 Impact of Computers and Educational Technology on Noncognitive Processes 1.2.2.1 Teamwork Skills and Social Behaviors: The Influence of Communication Using Social Media Technology 1.2.2.2 Emotional Regulation, Empathy, and Professionalism: A Role for Instructor-Guided Technology and Activities 1.2.2.3 Impact of Computers on Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning 1.3 Educational Research Should Develop Intentionally 1.3.1 Past: Significant Outcomes That Have Arisen from Innovations in Educational Technology 1.3.2 Present: Intentional Research and How Technology Can Smooth Educational Barriers 1.3.3 Future: Intentionally Developing Teaching Research by Mechanistic Analysis 1.4 Emotional, Social, and Employment Competencies in the Future Role of Bioscience Education 1.4.1 The Next Purpose of Higher Education and Its Enhancement by Technology: Emotional Education and Social Competencies 1.4.2 Educational Technology Researchers Should Consider Competencies and Employability Skills 1.4.3 Fostering Emotional and Social Development: Competition or Collaboration and the Role of Technology 1.5 How the Book Is Structured to Address These Issues 1.5.1 The Four Parts of the Book 1.5.2 Individual Chapter Summaries References Chapter 2: Technology, Equity, and Inclusion in the Virtual Education Space 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Barriers to Inclusion in STEM and Educational Technology 2.3 The Rhetoric Versus Reality of Educational Technology Solutionism 2.4 Surveillance Capitalism and Higher Education 2.4.1 Leveraging Technology for Inclusion Rather Than Surveillance 2.5 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 3: Institutional Culture of Student Empowerment: Redefining the Roles of Students and Technology 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Reconceptualizing the Actors of Teaching and Learning: Writers vs. Readers 3.2 Institutional Culture of Student Empowerment 3.3 Student Engagement and Empowerment as a Central Value in Curriculum 3.3.1 Case at Southern Illinois University School of Medicine 3.3.2 Problem-Based Learning 3.3.3 Student as Educators: PBL Tutors and Pathology Instructors 3.3.4 Curricular Changes in Clerkships: Toward Clinical Immersion and Socialization 3.3.5 Coachability Curriculum: A Student-Driven Education in the ``Soft ́ ́ Nonacademic Attributes of Medicine 3.3.6 Programmatic Assessment for Collective Reflective Practices 3.4 Technological Transformation Processes for Student Empowerment 3.4.1 Development of a Dashboard for Empowering Different Stakeholders 3.4.2 Implementation of a Dashboard 3.4.3 Future Plan: Embracing Student Individualized Learning 3.5 Conclusion References Chapter 4: From Psychology Laboratory to Student Development: Untangling Momentary Engagement from Longer-Term Engagement in B... 4.1 The Problem with Engagement Research: Too Many Definitions 4.1.1 Different Definitions of Engagement 4.1.2 Engagement as a Facilitator of Learning Benefits 4.1.3 Disengagement Versus Lack of Engagement 4.1.4 The Challenges in Defining Engagement Necessitate New Mechanistic Measurements 4.2 Momentary Engagement and Learning 4.2.1 Connecting Memories 4.2.1.1 Elaboration 4.2.1.2 Dual Coding 4.2.1.3 Concrete Examples 4.2.2 Timing of Rehearsal 4.2.2.1 Retrieval Practice 4.2.2.2 Spaced Practice 4.3 Longer-Term Engagement and Student Motivation: Internalizing Extrinsic Toward Intrinsic 4.3.1 Engagement Depends on Motivation 4.3.2 Motivation Is Categorized Between Internal and External 4.3.3 Intrinsic Motivation vs. Internalized Instrumental Motivation 4.4 Interventions to Improve Longer-Term Engagement 4.4.1 Short-Term Interventions to Increase Student Motivation 4.4.2 Communities Fuel Social Engagement 4.4.3 Sense of Belonging Is a Substrate to Internalization of Motivation 4.5 Assessment Drives Engagement and More 4.5.1 The Tradition of Using Assessment to Drive Behavioral Engagement 4.5.2 Lower-Stakes Assessment Programs to Drive Behavioral Engagement 4.5.3 Quality Feedback Can Drive Metacognitive Engagement and Reflection 4.5.4 Assessment Leads to Cognitive Engagement with Learning Strategies 4.6 Active Learning Pedagogies 4.6.1 Student Resistance and Other Barriers to Active Learning 4.7 Conclusion References Part II: How Educational Technologies Shape the Classroom Experience Chapter 5: Perceptual Learning, Adaptive Learning, and Gamification: Educational Technologies for Pattern Recognition, Problem... 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Conceptions of Learning 5.2.1 Perceptual Learning 5.3 Adaptive Learning 5.3.1 Learning Principles and Adaptive Learning 5.3.1.1 The Testing Effect 5.3.2 The Spacing Effect 5.3.3 Adaptive Learning and the ARTS System 5.4 Games and Gamification in Medical Learning 5.4.1 Gaming Prospects and Pitfalls 5.5 Perceptual and Adaptive Learning in Medical Domains 5.5.1 General Aims of Perceptual-Adaptive Learning Modules (PALMs) 5.5.2 Electrocardiography PALMs 5.5.3 PALMs in Other Medical Learning Domains 5.5.3.1 Factual Learning, Simulation, and Higher-Order Pattern Recognition in PALMs 5.6 Conclusion References Chapter 6: The Flipped Classroom: A Guide to Making Evidence-Based Decisions About Implementation 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Theoretical and Empirical Rationale for the Flipped Classroom 6.3 Evidence Supporting the Effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom 6.4 Evidence-Based Guidance for Implementing Flipped Classroom Teaching 6.4.1 Outside the Classroom 6.4.1.1 Technology 6.4.1.2 Activities 6.4.2 Inside the Classroom 6.4.2.1 Activities 6.4.2.2 Structure 6.4.2.3 Group Size and Attendance 6.4.3 Assessment 6.4.3.1 Pre-class and Post-class Assessments 6.4.3.2 Types and Cognitive Level of Assessment Items 6.5 The Key Ingredients for a Successful Flipped Classroom: The State of the Instructors and Students 6.5.1 Instructors 6.5.2 Students 6.5.2.1 Student Participation and Self-Regulated Learning Skills 6.5.2.2 Student Perceptions 6.6 Conclusion and Future Directions 6.6.1 Model of Factors Influencing Flipped Classroom Success 6.6.1.1 The Input Layer 6.6.1.2 The Output Layer 6.6.1.3 The Hidden Layer 6.6.2 Conclusions and Future Directions References Chapter 7: Supplementary Videos in the Biosciences: How Stakeholders Can Reinforce Complex Concepts for Self-Directed Learners 7.1 Introduction: The Educational Case for Supplementary Videos 7.1.1 Remit of This Chapter 7.1.2 Environment for the Use of Videos 7.2 Formats of Educational Videos 7.3 The Rationale for Videos: Learning, Engagement, and Satisfaction 7.3.1 Instructor Viewpoint 7.3.2 Student Viewpoint 7.4 Platforms Where Students Can Access Supplementary Videos 7.4.1 YouTube and Related Platforms 7.4.2 Pervasiveness and Learning Benefits of YouTube Videos 7.4.3 Curation, Regulation, and Reporting: Promoting YouTube Videos That Are Credible 7.4.4 Institutionally Based Supplementary Videos 7.5 Best Practices for Production 7.5.1 Elements of a High-Quality Supplementary Video 7.5.2 Viewer Engagement 7.5.3 Topic, Aims, and Remit: Introducing What the Video Is About 7.5.4 Timing and Student Control 7.5.5 Information Overload and How to Avoid It 7.5.6 Prompts for the Viewer to Answer Questions or Take Other Actions 7.5.7 Segmentation 7.5.8 Cueing 7.5.9 Dynamic Versus Static Visuals 7.5.10 Animations 7.5.11 Camera Angle 7.5.12 Instructor Visibility 7.5.13 Humor 7.5.14 Narration 7.5.15 Organization and Combining Design Principles 7.6 Student Responses to Institutionally Provided Supplementary Videos 7.6.1 Procedural Videos 7.6.2 Conceptually Based Videos 7.6.3 Why Students Choose Not to Use Supplementary Videos 7.7 Improvements in Learning Outcomes: Strong and Weak Data 7.8 Measuring Supplementary Video Usage 7.9 Using Videos to Untangle Difficult Topics and Misconceptions 7.10 Conclusions References Chapter 8: Aligning Assessment Goals with the Current and Future Technologies Needed to Achieve Them 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Designing Assessments That Elicit Evidence of Learning 8.1.2 Models of Cognition 8.1.3 Assessment: From Simple to Complex 8.2 A Constructivist Approach 8.2.1 Constructivist Assessments for Constructivist Pedagogies and Learning Models 8.2.2 beSocratic: A Constructivist Teaching and Assessment System 8.2.3 Examples of beSocratic Activities 8.3 Feedback 8.3.1 The Role of Feedback 8.3.2 Instructional Technology, Formative Assessment, and Feedback 8.4 The Future of Technology-Based Assessment References Chapter 9: The Use of Video, Audio, and E-Portfolios to Provide Feedback 9.1 Deep Learning 9.2 Community of Inquiry 9.3 Feedback 9.3.1 Quality of Feedback 9.3.2 Feedback Culture 9.3.3 Feedback Literacy 9.4 Feedback in Blended and Online Education 9.5 Peer Feedback 9.6 Forms of Feedback 9.7 Video Feedback 9.7.1 Talking Head 9.7.2 Screencast Video Feedback 9.8 Audio Feedback 9.9 Feedback in E-Portfolios 9.9.1 E-Portfolios 9.9.2 E-Portfolios for Assessment 9.10 Future Vision and Research Needed 9.10.1 Peer Feedback 9.10.2 Video Feedback 9.10.3 Qualitative Feedback for Programmatic Assessment 9.10.4 Artificial Intelligent Assistants References Chapter 10: Academic Cheating: How Can We Detect and Discourage It? 10.1 Definition and Significance of Academic Cheating 10.2 What Forms of Cheating Are Commonly Employed by Students? 10.2.1 Improper Use of Materials 10.2.1.1 Plagiarism 10.2.1.2 Access to Prohibited Materials Before the Test 10.2.1.3 Access to Prohibited Materials During the Test 10.2.2 Improper Processes 10.2.2.1 Denial of Materials to Others 10.2.3 Prohibited Assistance 10.2.3.1 Impersonation 10.2.3.2 Ghost Writing 10.2.4 Collusion 10.3 How Can Cheating Be Reduced by Electronic and Other Means? 10.3.1 Improper Materials 10.3.1.1 Plagiarism 10.3.1.2 Access to Prohibited Materials Before the Test 10.3.1.3 Access to Prohibited Materials During the Test 10.3.2 Improper Processes 10.3.2.1 Denial of Materials to Others 10.3.3 Prohibited Assistance 10.3.3.1 Impersonation 10.3.3.2 Ghost Writing 10.3.4 Collusion 10.4 What Are the Factors Promoting Cheating? 10.4.1 Cultural Factors 10.4.2 Contextual Factors 10.4.3 Personal and Socio-demographic Factors 10.4.4 Rational Choice Theory 10.5 How Can Cheating Be Inhibited? 10.6 How to Modify Assessment to Reduce Cheating and Encourage Cooperation References Part III: How Educational Technologies Transcend the Classroom Chapter 11: Attendance Debate Part 1. Attendance and Performance: A New Landscape in the Era of Online Teaching 11.1 Attendance in Class as a Predictor of Success 11.1.1 What Is Engagement? 11.1.2 Is Our Understanding of Engagement Based on Our Own Experience as Students? 11.2 Attendance and Performance in Medical Education in the Current Era 11.3 Lecture Capture: A Marker of Engagement? 11.3.1 The Problem of Researching the Effects of Lecture Captures 11.3.2 Lecture Capture and Attendance 11.3.3 Impact of Lecture Capture Use on Performance 11.3.4 Lecture Capture: A Marker for Engagement? 11.4 How Do Students Use Lecture Captures? 11.4.1 Staff Perceptions and the Impact on the Type of Teaching 11.5 Attendance Is Not Necessarily Required for Performance 11.6 The Future of Digital Technology in Learning and Teaching: Lessons Learned from COVID-19 References Chapter 12: Attendance Debate Part 2. Lecture Capture, Attendance, and Exam Performance in the Biosciences: Exploring Rare Exc... 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Has Technology Diluted the Link Between Classroom Attendance and Performance? 12.1.2 The Approach of This Review 12.1.3 Statistical and Educational: Mechanistic Sources of Discrepancies 12.2 Educational Differences 12.2.1 Differences in the Student Cohorts 12.2.1.1 Postgraduate Versus Undergraduate Student Cohorts: Age, Selection, and Self-Regulation 12.2.2 Differences in the Classroom 12.2.2.1 Research Pre-2000: Before Video Lecture Capture and Extensive Online Resources 12.2.2.2 Availability of Tailored Alternate Learning Resources for Skills Learning 12.2.3 Differences in the Learning Environment and Technologies 12.2.3.1 Video Lecture Capture Recordings: Supplement or Substitute? 12.2.3.2 Evidence from Studies Measuring the Effects of Lecture Capture Videos 12.2.3.3 Do Students Have Insight into How They Decide to Study with Technology? 12.2.3.4 Third-Party Resources and Practice Test Questions for Studying 12.3 Revisiting Mechanisms for How Attendance and Performance Are Linked 12.3.1 Mediated Effects: Learning in the Classroom 12.3.2 Support for Studying from the Classroom 12.3.3 Confounding: The Same Motivated Students Attend More and Study More 12.4 Differences in Statistical or Study Organization 12.4.1 Who Is Being Counted in the Statistics 12.4.1.1 Percentage of Failing Students 12.4.1.2 Removal of Failing Students 12.4.1.3 Weak Associations That Did Not Reach Significance 12.4.2 The Role of How Attendance and Performance Are Measured 12.4.3 Limitation: Using Exam Scores as a Proxy for Learning 12.5 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 12.5.1 Improving Learning Opportunities 12.5.2 Improving Lecture Capture 12.5.2.1 Bookmarks, Links, and Lecture Length 12.5.2.2 Active Learning with Embedded Problem-Solving 12.5.3 Future Research 12.5.3.1 Acknowledging the Differences 12.5.3.2 Mandatory Attendance 12.5.3.3 At-Risk Students 12.5.3.4 Balancing Ongoing Student Work and Assessments in Final Marks 12.5.3.5 Our Research Recommendations References Chapter 13: Online Science Education at Scale: Open and Distance Learning, MOOCS, and Other Learning Assets for Theory and Pra... 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Definitions and Global Context 13.1.2 Teaching Science Online 13.1.3 Designing Online Learning 13.1.4 Technology and Online Learning 13.2 The Rise of MOOCs 13.3 Why Produce a MOOC? 13.4 Case Study: Making a Physiology MOOC 13.4.1 The Design Approach 13.4.2 Students and Teachers as ``Co-creators ́ ́ 13.4.3 Bringing the MOOC to Life 13.4.4 Quality Assurance (QA) Prior to Release: The Final Checks 13.5 The Challenges of Teaching Practical Bioscience Skills Online 13.5.1 Why Try to Teach Practical Science Online? 13.5.2 Online Practical Work: What It Is (and What It Isn ́t) 13.5.3 Issues to Consider in Developing and Supporting Online Practical Tools 13.6 Evaluating the Success of Online Teaching Assets 13.7 Conclusions References Chapter 14: Social Online Learning: Leveraging Social Media and Web-Based Co-creation to Drive Learning 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Learning Theory and Instructional Design 14.2.1 Implications of Connectivism for the Design of Online Social Learning 14.3 Engaging with Online Social Learning: Opportunities and Challenges 14.3.1 Case Study: A student ́s Experience of Online Content Curation 14.3.2 Setting up an Online Social Learning Community: Encouraging Students and Faculty to Take Part 14.3.3 Digital Literacy and Information Overload 14.3.4 Professionalism 14.3.5 The Impact of Trolling on Student and Faculty Engagement 14.3.6 Active and Passive Engagement Online 14.3.7 The Influence of Personality on the Use of Social Media 14.3.8 Strategies to Engage Students in Social Online Learning 14.4 Co-creation Between Students and Faculty 14.4.1 What Is Co-creation? 14.4.2 Initiating and Maintaining Co-creation Projects 14.4.3 Outputs of Co-creation 14.4.3.1 Question-Writing 14.4.3.2 Blog Creation 14.4.4 Benefits of Co-creation 14.4.5 Student and Faculty Perceptions of Co-creation 14.4.6 Barriers and Limitations Faced by Co-creation Projects 14.5 Embedding Social Online Learning into the Curriculum 14.5.1 Planning 14.5.2 Initiation 14.5.3 Maintenance 14.5.4 Case Study: Faculty Perspective on Introducing Virtual Case-Based Learning (vCBL) During the COVID-19 Pandemic 14.6 Looking to the Future: What Do We Need to Successfully Adopt Online Social Learning in the Biomedical and Life Sciences? References Chapter 15: The Role of Educational Technology on Mitigating the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Teaching and Learning 15.1 Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) 15.1.1 History of Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) 15.2 Teaching Strategies Employed During COVID-19 ERT 15.2.1 Synchronous Learning 15.2.1.1 Videoconferencing Tools 15.2.1.2 Communication Tools 15.2.1.3 Using Synchronous Tools Effectively 15.2.2 Asynchronous Learning 15.2.2.1 Canvas 15.2.2.2 Blackboard 15.2.2.3 Others 15.2.2.4 Using Asynchronous Tools Effectively 15.2.3 Special Considerations for Teaching Labs or Hands-On Activities 15.2.4 Virtual Exams and Assessments 15.2.4.1 Implementing the Exam 15.2.4.2 Evidence of Cheating 15.2.4.3 Proctoring Software 15.2.4.4 Discouraging Cheating: Software Alternatives 15.2.4.5 Alternatives to Exams 15.3 Future Trends in Educational Technology 15.3.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) 15.3.2 Learning Analytics 15.3.3 Next-Generation Digital Learning Environment (NGDLE) 15.3.4 Augmented Reality (AR) 15.3.5 Virtual Reality (VR) 15.4 Forward Facing: The Future of Education During Emergencies 15.4.1 Develop and Invest in Infrastructure and Support 15.4.2 Be Proactive and Organized 15.4.3 Evidence of Effective Training 15.4.4 Using the Best of Both Worlds: Synchronous and Asynchronous Instruction 15.4.5 Rethink Online Assessments 15.4.6 Address Digital Inequalities 15.4.7 Digital Integration and Analytics 15.4.8 Privacy and Ethical Considerations 15.5 Conclusion References Part IV: The Future and Research Chapter 16: The Unpredictable Future of High-Fidelity Patient Simulation in Biomedical Science Education: The Price Must Be Ri... 16.1 Overview of Categories of Simulations 16.1.1 Software and Computer-Based Programs 16.1.2 Virtual Patients 16.1.3 Task Trainers 16.1.4 Standardized Patients 16.1.5 High-Fidelity Patient Simulators 16.1.6 Cost to Benefit Ratio for Simulators 16.2 Research on High-Fidelity Patient Simulators 16.2.1 Pioneering Work 16.2.2 The Next Wave of High-Fidelity Patient Simulator Research (2010s) 16.2.3 High-Fidelity Patient Simulation for Undergraduate Biomedical Students 16.3 The Future: Where Does High-Fidelity Patient Simulator Research Need to Go? 16.3.1 Lower the Cost of HFPS 16.3.2 Use HFPS to Develop Soft Skills 16.3.3 Capitalize on the Engagement Aspect of HFPS to Facilitate Learning 16.3.4 Compare, Supplement, or Replace HFPS with Virtual Reality 16.3.5 Investigate At-Home Simulation for Students 16.3.6 Establish a Set of Standards for HFPS Research and Use References Chapter 17: The Future with Extended Reality, Three-Dimensional, and Advanced Imaging for Molecules, Microscopy, and Anatomy 17.1 The Drivers for Visualization Pedagogies in the Biosciences 17.1.1 Biology Is Complex and Challenging to Learn 17.1.2 Visualization in Bioscience Teaching 17.2 Approaches to Visualization 17.2.1 Extended Reality 17.2.2 3-D and Advanced Imaging of Molecules 17.2.3 Microscopy 17.2.4 Anatomy 17.2.5 Distance and Blended Learning 17.3 What Is the Future for Visualization? 17.3.1 Digital Limitations 17.4 Supporting Novel Visualization Teaching Methods 17.5 Future Research and a Commitment to Educational Change 17.5.1 Teaching Infrastructure to Support Educational Innovation 17.5.2 Future Research Suggestions: Digital Twinning of Research and Teaching References Chapter 18: The Future of Biomedical and Life Science Education: Evidence-Based Future Directions 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Integration of Biomedical Sciences in North American Medical Education: A Case Study on the ``Curricular Carousel ́ ́ 18.3 Lessons Learned and a Way Forward 18.4 Cognition Matters: Supporting the Development of Conceptual Knowledge at the Session Level 18.5 Preparation for Future Learning 18.6 Productive Failure 18.7 Self-Explanation 18.8 Retrieval Practice 18.9 Context Matters 18.10 Cohort Effects 18.11 Motivational Factors 18.12 Environmental Factors 18.13 Looking to the Future: Research and Reform References