Technologies for RF Systems

This new resource presents a comprehensive introduction to the main concepts, technologies, and components in microwave and RF engineering. This book provides details about how to design various amplifiers, circuits, and chips for communication systems. It offers insight into how to select appropriate ADC and DAC technology. Several worked examples are found throughout the book. This book provides a summary of 21st century RF systems and electronics and discusses the challenges of frequency bands and wavelengths, software-defined radio (SDR) and cognitive radio. Technologies for RF Systems Contents Acknowledgments CHAPTER 1 Twenty-First Century RF Systems and Electronics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Abbreviations Relating to Symbols Used in this Book 1.3 Antennas 1.4 The Challenge of Frequency Bands and Wavelengths 1.5 Software-Defined Radio and Cognitive Radio 1.6 The Challenge of Noise 1.7 RF Receivers 1.8 RF Filters 1.9 ADCs and DACs 1.10 Oscillators, Mixers, and Frequency Converters 1.11 Semiconductor Device Requirements 1.12 Semiconductor Manufacturing 1.13 Diodes and Transistors 1.14 Hybrid Circuits and MMICs 1.15 The Challenge of RF Power Amplification 1.16 Electronic Design Automation References CHAPTER 2 RF Semiconductors 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Semiconductor Materials 2.2.1 Bandgap 2.2.2 Drift Velocity 2.2.3 Resistors Made from Semiconductors 2.2.4 Electron Speed and Transit Time 2.2.5 Some Further Important Properties of Semiconductors 2.2.6 Semiconductor Manufacturing 2.3 Semiconductor Diodes (RF-Oriented) 2.3.1 Some Semiconductor Junction Diode Fundamentals 2.3.2 P-I-N Diodes 2.3.3 Varactor Diodes 2.3.4 Noise in RF Diodes 2.4 Transistors 2.4.1 Introductory Remarks 2.4.2 High Frequency Circuit Models for Transistors 2.4.3 CMOS and Related Transistor Technologies 2.4.4 GaAs and GaN Field-Effect Transistors 2.4.5 The GaAs HEMT and pHEMT 2.4.6 The GaN HEMT 2.4.7 Bipolar RF Transistors 2.5 MMICs and RFICs References CHAPTER 3 Passive RF Components 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Discrete Passive RF Components 3.2.1 Capacitors 3.2.2 Inductors 3.2.3 Resistors 3.3 RF Transmission Lines 3.3.1 Coaxial Lines 3.3.2 Microstrip 3.4 Coplanar Waveguide 3.5 Substrate Integrated Waveguide References CHAPTER 4 Passive RF Circuit Elements 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Fundamentals of Directional Couplers 4.3 The Lange Coupler 4.3.1 EM Structure 4.4 Wilkinson Power Dividers 4.4.1 Introduction to Wilkinson Dividers 4.4.2 Equal-Split Wilkinson Dividers 4.4.3 Unequal-Split Wilkinson Dividers 4.4.4 Multiport Equal-Split Wilkinson Dividers 4.5 Baluns References CHAPTER 5 Switches, Attenuators, and Digital Circuits 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Solid State RF Switches 5.2.1 Some Overall Aspects 5.2.2 Reflective and Nonreflective SPDT GaAs FET Switches 5.3 Attenuators 5.4 Digital Circuits 5.4.1 Selected Examples of Logic Gates 5.4.2 Digital Signal Processors 5.4.3 Electronically Programmable Read-Only Memories 5.4.4 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays 5.4.5 Provision for Built-In Test and Related Requirements 5.4.6 Technology Utilized for Digital Circuit Elements References CHAPTER 6 Radio-Frequency Filters 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Review of Basic Concepts and Fundamentals 6.3 Technology Options 6.4 LPFs Formed with Cascaded Microstrips 6.5 Microwave BPFs 6.6 Suspended Substrate Stripline Filters 6.7 Inline Microstrip Filter Structures 6.8 Filters Using Defected Ground Plane Technology 6.9 Dielectric Resonators and Filters Implementing Them 6.10 SIW-Based BPFs 6.11 Millimeter-Wave BPFs 6.12 Tunable BPFs References CHAPTER 7 Antennas 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Antenna Fundamentals 7.2.1 Near-Field and Far-Field Conditions 7.2.2 Radiation Patterns and Beamwidth 7.2.3 Directivity 7.2.4 Radiation Efficiency 7.2.5 Aperture Efficiency 7.2.6 Effective Area 7.2.7 Gain 7.2.8 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power 7.2.9 Friis’ Equation 7.2.10 Impedance Matching 7.2.11 Polarization 7.2.12 Antenna Noise Temperature 7.2.13 Gain-Temperature Ratio 7.3 Dish Reflector Antennas 7.4 Flat-Panel or Patch Antennas 7.5 Analog, Digital, and Hybrid Beamforming 7.6 Active Electronically-Scanned Arrays References CHAPTER 8 Small-Signal RF Amplifiers 8.1 Review of Amplifier Fundamentals 8.2 Basic RF Amplifiers 8.2.1 Practical RF Amplifier Realization 8.2.2 Interstage or Inner Matching Networks 8.3 The Vital Issue of Stability 8.4 Fundamental Receiver Characteristics Leading to the Need for AGC 8.4.1 Toward an Effective AGC Circuit Design 8.5 High-Gain RF Amplifiers 8.6 Broadband Amplifiers 8.6.1 Basic Requirements 8.6.2 Balanced Amplifiers 8.6.3 Distributed Amplifiers References CHAPTER 9 Noise and LNAs 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Noise Factor, Noise Figure, and Equivalent Noise Temperature 9.3 Noise Figure for an Attenuating Element 9.4 Minimum Detectable Signal 9.5 Noise in Transistors 9.5.1 Thermal Noise, Particularly Thermal Diffusion Noise 9.5.2 Shot Noise 9.5.3 Flicker Noise 9.5.4 Phase Noise 9.5.5 Variation of Noise Figure with Frequency 9.6 Overall Noise Figure for Cascaded Blocks 9.7 Noise-Matching and Narrowband LNA Design References CHAPTER 10 RF Power Amplifiers 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Some Basic Aspects of RFPAs 10.3 Transistor Choices, Hybrid Circuits, and MMICs 10.4 Power Levels, Power Gains, and Efficiency 10.4.1 Internal Transistor Output Characteristics 10.4.2 RFPA Output-Input Power Transfer Characteristics 10.4.3 Amplifier Efficiency 10.5 Compression and Peak-to-Average Power Ratio 10.5.1 Compression and a Summary of Main Parameters 10.5.2 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio 10.6 Error Vector Magnitude 10.7 Classifications of Power Amplifiers 10.7.1 Class A Amplifiers 10.7.2 Class B and AB Amplifiers 10.7.3 Class C Amplifiers 10.8 Harmonically Matched Power Amplifiers 10.8.1 Switched-Mode RFPAs 10.8.2 Class F Power Amplifiers 10.9 The Doherty Power Amplifier Configuration 10.10 The Envelope-Tracking Amplifier 10.11 High Power Push-Pull Amplifiers 10.12 Other Practical RFPA Circuits 10.12.2 Ka-Band PA MMIC Examples 10.13 The Distortion Issue and Linearization Techniques 10.13.1 Linearity and Intermodulation Distortion 10.13.2 Linearization Techniques 10.14 Some Final Overall Comments Regarding RFPAs References CHAPTER 11 RF-Oriented ADCs and DACs 11.1 Introduction 11.2 ADCs 11.2.1 Quantization and Sampling 11.2.2 Sampling in Practical ADCs 11.2.3 Effective Number of Bits 11.2.4 Quantization Error and Quantization Noise 11.2.5 Quantization Static Error and Sampling Distortion 11.2.6 Sampling Jitter 11.2.7 Aliasing and Antialiasing 11.2.8 Adjacent Channel Power Ratio 11.3 ADC Architectures 11.3.1 The Flash ADC Architecture 11.3.2 The Folding ADC Architecture 11.3.3 Pipelined ADC Architecture 11.3.4 Time-Interleaved ADCs 11.4 Digital-to-Analog Converters 11.4.1 Basic Structure and Functionality of a DAC 11.4.2 DAC Resolution, Speed, and Figures of Merit 11.4.3 Some Practical Aspects of High-Speed DACs References CHAPTER 12 Radio Frequency Sources 12.1 Some Fundamental Aspects of RF Oscillators 12.2 Some Fundamental Aspects of RF Oscillators 12.3 Quartz Crystal Oscillators 12.3.1 The Quartz Crystal 12.3.2 Quartz Crystal-Based Oscillators 12.4 Oscillators Controlled by Dielectric Resonators 12.5 VCOs 12.6 Importance and Impact of Phase Noise 12.7 Frequency Multipliers 12.8 Frequency Dividers 12.9 Phase-Locked-Loop-Based Frequency Synthesizers 12.9.1 Basic Configuration 12.9.2 The Fractional-N Frequency Synthesiser References CHAPTER 13 Frequency-Band Conversion 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Fundamentals of Mixers 13.2.1 Basic Features 13.2.2 Image Frequency 13.3 Diode-Based Mixers 13.3.1 The Single-Ended Diode Mixer 13.3.2 The Double-Diode Mixer 13.3.3 The Image-Reject Mixer 13.3.4 Upconverters 13.4 Transistor-Based Mixers 13.4.1 The Single-Ended FET Mixer 13.4.2 Differential FET Mixer 13.4.3 CMOS-Based Mixers 13.4.4 Mixer Implementing a Cascode Circuit 13.4.5 The Gilbert Cell Mixer References CHAPTER 14 Modulation Techniques and Technologies 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Amplitude Modulation 14.3 Frequency Modulation 14.4 Digital Modulation 14.4.1 Specific Aspects Relating to Digitally Modulated Systems 14.4.2 ASK, OOK, and FSK 14.4.3 BPSK and QPSK 14.4.4 M-PSK, QAM, and APSK 14.4.5 Spectral Efficiency of the Various Digital Systems 14.4.6 Probability of Bit Error or Bit Error Rates 14.4.7 Closed-Form Expressions for the Complementary Error Function 14.4.8 BER Data Compared 14.4.9 Spread-Spectrum Modulation 14.4.10 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access 14.5 Transceivers 14.5.1 Basic Concept of a Transceiver 14.5.2 Software-Defined Radio 14.5.3 Full-Duplex Radios 14.5.4 Transceiver Modules for Short-Range Radio References Appendix ALogarithmic Units Appendix BS-Parameters and X-Parameters B.1 Scattering (S)-Parameters B.2 X-Parameters References Acronyms and Abbreviations About the Author Index This comprehensive resource provides an introduction to the main concepts, technologies, and components in microwave and RF engineering. This book presents details about how to design various amplifiers, circuits, and chips for communication systems. It offers insight into selecting appropriate ADC and DAC technology. Several worked examples are found throughout the book. This book provides a summary of 21st century RF systems and electronics and discusses the challenges of frequency bands and wavelengths, software-defined radio (SDR) and cognitive radio. RF semiconductors are covered, including bandgap, drift velocity, resistors, diodes, and various transistors. This book offers details about passive RF components, capacitors, inductors, resistors, coaxial, and microstrip lines as well as coplanar waveguide. Passive RF circuit elements are presented and this book covers the fundamentals of directional couplers, including Lange couplers and Wilkinson dividers. Switches, attenuators, and digital circuits are discussed. This book is packed with additional coverage of RF filters, antennas, and small-signal RF amplifiers, and includes chapters on noise and LNAs, RF power amplifiers and RF-oriented ADCs and DACs. Modulation techniques and technologies are also presented -- Provide by publisher This book explains how to design various amplifiers, circuits, and chips for communication systems and select the appropriate ADC and DAC technology. It covers RF semiconductors, and includes details on passive RF components, capacitors, inductors, resistors, transmission, coaxial, and microstrip lines as well as coplanar waveguide.