Tawantinsuyu : the Inca state and its political organization

The aim of this study is to analyze, summarize and bring up to date interpretations and knowledge concerning the main aspects of Tawantinsuyu (the Inca State) especially relating to its political organization. The questions the investigators have to face are numerous and therefore somewhat different methods and approaches will be used relating to each problem. In fact, the methods and approaches mainly depend on the amount and quality of our primary sources since we do not have any other choice than to accept the limitations of our primary material. Nevertheless, we may say that in general, historical methods, as well as anthropological models and theories will be used. Furthermore, archaeological and linguistic information helps us considerably to understand some spatial and administrative principles and structures of Tawantinsuyu. In general we may say that one must act like a historian when dealing with chroniclers and other written documents. However, after the investigator has evaluated, for example, a chronicler's original sources, a chronicler's possibility to understand the phenomenom they were describing, the validity of their information and so on, he, the investigator, must act more like an anthropologist to seek the structures Tawantinsuyu was composed of. Of course, it is impossible to document all the details of the analyzing processes which lie behind the final description, but when an investigator uses terms like dualism, triadism, corvee, sacred center and so on, one may be aware that he is referring to theoretical models and constructions which, he hopes, may help us in understanding the phenomena under analysis. However, in more detailed parts of description scholars willingly use original 19Quechua and Aymara terms like suyu,1 saya, ayllu, hatha, curaca, mallku, apo, hanan, chhulla, etc, because those terms have meanings which cannot be translated by using only one or two words. The same is true with Spanish terms like cacique principal, segunda persona, cabecera, orejon and so on, which had specific meanings in 16th century Spanish Peru. In this study I especially try to seek those structures which prevailed for a considerable time through all those changes that occured during the Conquest period, since the fact is that although the Spanish conquest in 1532 destroyed the upper level of hierarchy in the Incaic political organization, the break did not destroy everything equally. Especially those political structures which were based on earlier "pre-existing" sociopolitical principles in the middle and lower levels of hierarchy left their traces many times up to Toledoan reductions realized in the 1570s and sometimes (especially in the highlands) even up today (depending on factors such as demography). In practice, more than the history of events I am studying the history of structures and the principles of organization which had a long duration (longue duree) in the sense of Fernand BRAUDEL. Acknowledgements 12 Glossary 16 Introduction 19 I SOURCES 26 1. The Inca Texts and Writing System 26 1.1 The pictographic writing of the Incas 26 1.2 The system of khipu 31 1.3. Khipu records and historical texts 44 2. Chronicles and Other Written Sources 50 2.1. The Incas and the chroniclers: some basic problems 50 2.2. "Non-source-based knowledge" and the practice of copying earlier sources 52 2.3. The case of Martin de Morúa. 53 2.4. The case of Pedro Gutierrez de Santa Clara 58 2.5. Visitas and other Spanish administrative records 68 II THE CHRONOLOGY AND AREA OF THE INCA EXPANSION 71 1. The General Problem 71 2. Specific Problems 77 2.1. Specific problems relating to Guaina Inga, Amaro Topa and Guanca Auqui 77 2.2. Mayta Capac 78 2.3. Capac Yupanqui 81 2.4. Viracocha Inca 82 73. The Documented Inca Expansion 85 3.1 The Inca expansion in Chinchaysuyu 85 3.2 Antisuyu 107 3.3 Collasuyu 120 3.4 Cuntisuyu 136 III THE TOTAL POPULATION OF TAWANTINSUYU IN 1530 141 IV AN EXCURSION TO SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION 152 1. Gifts, Kin and Politics 152 2. Acllas and Yanas 157 3. The Education at the Court 161 4. The System of Mitimaes 163 4.1. Mitimaes with emphasis on the economic functions 164 4.2. Military mitimaes 167 4.3. Mitimaes with emphasis on the sociopolitical functions 168 4.4. Mitimaes with emphasis on the religious functions 170 V THE SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF CUZCO 171 1. Principles of the Dual and Quaternary Structures 171 2. The Importance of Tripartition in Inca Ideology 179 2.1. The myth of origin and the iconography of Guaman Poma: two ways to express ternary hierarchy 179 2.2. The triad structure of the ceque system of Cuzco 187 3. Sociopolitical Order of Prestige among the Members of Royal Panacas 193 4. Theories of Simultaneous Inca Kings 200 4.1 Theories of Zuidema and Duviols 200 4.2 Three Incas of Cuzco ? 207 5. Spatial Division and the Sociopolitical Organization of Cuzco 228 8VI THE DIVISION OF THE INCA STATE INTO FOUR SUYUS 236 1. The Four Suyus in the Semi-Sacral Area of Cuzco 237 2. Early Colonial Ecclesiastic Division and Tawantinsuyu 245 2.1 Dating of two important documents 245 2.2 The information of Tomås de San Martin 248 2.3. The demarcation line between Chinchaysuyu and Cuntisuyu 249 2.4. Cuntisuyu 250 2.5. Demarcation between Antisuyu and Collasuyu 253 2.6. Demarcation between Chinchaysuyu and Antisuyu 254 VII ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES OF THE INCA SUYUS DOWN TO PROVINCES 257 1. The Myth of the Inca Council 257 2. Ha tun Apocazgos: Possible Interprovincial Formations 261 3. State Officials 269 3.1.1. Tocricoc, the leader of guamaní 269 3.1.2. Tocricocs and the question of their residences in Chinchaysuyu 272 3.1.2.1. Tocricoc and the case of Chachapoya 278 3.1.2.2. The cases of Tomebamba and Quito 280 3.1.2.3. The case of Vilcas 281 3.1.3. Tocricocs in Antisuyu 282 3.1.4. Tocricocs in Collasuyu 282 3.1.4.1. The case of Copacabana 282 3.1.4.2. Samaipata 283 3.1.4.3. Other areas of Collasuyu 284 3.1.5. Tocricocs in Cuntisuyu 285 3.1.6 Summary 286 3.2. Tokoyrikoqs and other visiting Inca officials 287 4. The Size of Inca Provinces 293 9VIII THE INTERNAL DIVISIONS OF PROVINCES 304 1. The Problem 304 2. Chinchaysuyu 306 2.1.1 The case of Cajamarca: Interaction between monism and dualism 306 2.1.2. The spatial division of Cajamarca 310 2.2. Chachapoya and Chicama: combination of the dual and four-part organizations 321 2.2.1. Chachapoya 321 2.2.2. Chicama 323 2.3. Huayla: a combination of dual, four-part and triad principles 327 2.4. Huanca, Pachacamac and Chincha: interaction between triad and dual structures 338 2.4.1. Huanca 338 2.4.2. Pachacamac 341 2.4.3. Chincha 345 2.5. Sora and Rucana: triad organizations with dual and quaternary subsystems 346 3. Antisuyu 349 4. Collasuyu 351 4.1. The division into Urcosuyu and Umasuyu 351 4.2. The case of Pacasa: dual and quadripartite divisions 352 4.3. The case of Lupaca 360 5. Cuntisuyu and the Case of Collagua: Ternary Structure Dominated 362 6. Preliminary Summary 366 IX DECIMAL ORGANIZATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE 372 1. Theory and Its Problems 372 2. Hunu, a Group of Ten Thousand Households ? 379 3. Guarangas and Pachacas 381 4. The Size of Hamlets and Villages 390 4.1. Hamlets and villages of Chinchaysuyu 390 4.2. Hamlets and villages of Antisuyu 394 4.3. Hamlets and villages of Collasuyu 395 4.4. Hamlets and villages of Cuntisuyu 399 10X SUMMARY AND FINAL CONSIDERATION 405 SOURCES 413 MAPS 420 PUBLISHED SOURCES 422 COMMENTARIES AND RESEARCH 433 Index of tribes, provinces and valleys 459 Martti Pärssinen. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 413-450) And Index.