تولید پایدار انرژی: وضعیت کنونی، چالش‌های آینده و چشم‌اندازها

__Sustainable Power Generation: Current Status, Future Challenges and Perspectives__ addresses emerging problems faced by the transition to sustainable electricity generation and combines perspectives of engineering and economics to provide a well-rounded overview. This book features an in-depth discussion of the main aspects of sustainable energy and the infrastructure of existing technologies. It goes on to evaluate natural resources that are sustainable and convenient forms of energy, and finishes with an investigation of the environmental effects of energy systems and power generating systems of the future. Other sections tackle fundamental topics such as thermal power, nuclear energy, bioenergy, hydropower, challenges and risks to sustainable options and emerging technologies that support global power trends. Sustainable Power Generation explores the future of sustainable electricity generation, highlighting topics such as energy justice, emerging competences, and major transitions that need to be navigated. This is an ideal reference for researchers, engineers, and other technical specialists working in the energy sector, as well as environmental specialists and policy makers. Contents About the author Preface Acronyms Part 1 Introduction to energy and energy systems 1 Concept of energy 1.1 What is energy 1.1.1 Concept of energy 1.1.2 Forms of energy 1.1.3 Sources of energy 1.2 How to measure energy and power 1.3 Basic principles of energy conversion 1.3.1 Chemical energy 1.3.1.1 Conversion of chemical energy into heat 1.3.1.2 Conversion of chemical energy into electricity 1.3.2 Nuclear energy 1.3.3 Mechanical energy 1.3.4 Radiant energy 1.3.4.1 Natural conversion to heat 1.3.4.2 Natural conversion to chemical energy 1.3.4.3 Conversion into electricity 1.3.4.4 Conversion to heat 1.3.5 Heat 1.4 Electricity as the energy carrier 1.5 Motivation and structure of this book References 2 Evaluation of energy resources 2.1 Fundamental energy sources 2.1.1 Solar radiation 2.1.2 Geothermal energy 2.1.3 Tidal energy 2.2 Major planetary cycles 2.2.1 Water cycle 2.2.2 Carbon cycle 2.2.3 Nitrogen cycle 2.2.4 Global wind circulation 2.2.5 Ocean currents 2.3 Biomass resources 2.3.1 Land cover and use 2.3.2 Biomass energy potential and its conversion 2.4 Valuation and forecast of fossil fuels 2.4.1 Solid fuels 2.4.1.1 Production of coal 2.4.1.2 Coal reserves 2.4.2 Crude oil 2.4.2.1 Production and processing of crude oil 2.4.2.2 Oil reserves 2.4.3 Natural gas 2.4.3.1 Natural gas production 2.4.3.2 Natural gas reserves 2.4.4 Comparison of fossil fuels 2.5 Nuclear fuel References 3 Energy system and basic electricity market 3.1 Fundamentals of energy system 3.2 Energy industry 3.2.1 Power industry within energy industry 3.2.2 Concept and types of power plants 3.2.2.1 Traditional power plants 3.2.2.2 Emerging power plant technologies 3.3 Electric energy system beyond generation 3.3.1 Transmission and distribution of electricity 3.3.2 Consumption of electricity 3.4 Basics of electricity market 3.4.1 Major stakeholders 3.4.2 Models of market relationship 3.4.3 Types of energy contracts and markets 3.5 Energy system safety as part of energy security References Part 2 Sustainable energy and power generation 4 The system boundaries of sustainability 4.1 Introductory basics from systems theory 4.1.1 Definition of a system 4.1.2 Goal and limitations of a system 4.2 Definitions and principles of sustainable development 4.3 Sustainability paradigms and frameworks 4.3.1 Triple bottom line 4.3.2 Weak sustainability 4.3.3 Strong sustainability 4.4 Sustainability goals and metrics 4.4.1 Sustainable development goals 4.4.2 Sustainability metrics 4.5 Concluding remarks References 5 Sustainable energy development 5.1 Challenges for sustainable energy development 5.1.1 Historical outlook of energy development 5.1.2 Exponential growth 5.1.3 Limits to growth 5.2 Global energy production and consumption 5.2.1 Energy production 5.2.2 Energy demand and consumption 5.2.3 Electricity generation 5.3 SDGs related to energy system 5.3.1 SDG 7: ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy 5.3.2 SDG 12: ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns 5.3.3 SDG 13: take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts 5.4 Energy system within the sustainable solution space References 6 Power system and the environment 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Potential environmental threats 6.3 Greenhouse effect 6.4 Environmental consequences related to climate change References Part 3 Thermal power as a bridging technology towards sustainability 7 Concept of a thermal power plant 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Thermal power generation within global power mix 7.1.2 Thermal power as a transition technology 7.2 Steam power plant 7.2.1 Steam turbine cycle 7.2.2 Heat balance diagram and its optimization towards higher efficiency 7.2.3 Support systems and equipment areas 7.2.3.1 General process description and equipment areas 7.2.3.2 Modular configuration of a steam power plant 7.3 Gas turbine powered energy 7.3.1 Gas turbine simple cycle 7.3.2 Combined cycle as a way to increased efficiency 7.3.3 Major components and systems References 8 Efficient and clean combustion of fossil fuels within boiler island 8.1 Boiler island configuration 8.2 Efficient fuel treatment 8.2.1 Coal handling 8.2.2 Liquid fuel treatment 8.2.3 Natural gas treatment 8.3 Boiler design and challenges 8.3.1 Introduction 8.3.2 Traditional boiler schematics 8.3.3 Configuration of evaporator 8.3.4 Efficient arrangement for various types of fuel 8.3.4.1 Pulverized coal combustion 8.3.4.2 Fluidized bed combustion 8.4 Emissions and process waste treatment 8.4.1 Furnace solid ash treatment 8.4.2 Flue gas handling 8.4.2.1 Fly ash 8.4.2.2 SOx control 8.4.2.3 NOx control 8.4.2.4 CO2 and other emissions control 8.4.3 Exhaust chimney 8.5 Development of sustainable boiler technology References 9 Power island and balance of plant 9.1 Power island configuration 9.2 High efficiency steam turbine 9.2.1 Configuration of steam turbines 9.2.2 Major components 9.2.3 Accessories and auxiliary systems 9.3 Modern heavy duty gas turbine 9.3.1 Classes of efficiency 9.3.2 Major components 9.3.3 Accessories and supporting systems 9.3.3.1 Air inlet system 9.3.3.2 Exhaust system 9.3.3.3 Fuel module 9.3.3.4 Hydraulic and lubricating oil system 9.3.3.5 Compressor washing 9.4 Waste heat recovery equipment 9.4.1 Arrangement 9.4.2 Major components 9.5 Electrical generator 9.5.1 Concept of modern generator 9.5.2 Major components and accessories 9.6 Balance of plant systems 9.6.1 Scope and importance 9.6.2 Mechanical 9.6.2.1 Efficient heat rejection system Surface condenser with cooling loop Once-through cooling. Cooling pond Cooling tower Wet cooling tower Dry cooling tower Air-cooled condenser 9.6.2.2 Water treatment 9.6.3 Electrical 9.6.3.1 Circuit breaker 9.6.3.2 Control system References 10 Fossil energy economics and project lifecycle 10.1 Planning and investment decision 10.1.1 Business model 10.1.2 Cost of electricity analysis 10.1.3 Site selection 10.1.4 Sustainability questions 10.2 Power plant project execution 10.2.1 Bidding process 10.2.2 Project schedule 10.2.3 Engineering, construction, and commissioning 10.2.3.1 Performance guarantees 10.2.3.2 Emissions guarantees 10.2.3.3 Commercial operation date 10.3 Efficiency increase and safe operation 10.3.1 General considerations 10.3.2 Power plant life extension 10.3.3 Reasons for repowering and upgrades 10.4 What is next with fossil power generation? References Part 4 Past, present, and future of sustainable nuclear power 11 Nuclear energy 11.1 Nuclear energy and fission reaction 11.2 Sustainable nuclear fuel cycle 11.2.1 Types of fuel cycle 11.2.2 Exploration for uranium and ore extraction 11.2.3 Processing and enrichment 11.2.4 Nuclear fuel fabrication 11.2.5 Fuel utilization and handling of spent fuel 11.2.6 Fuel reprocessing and radioactive waste disposal 11.3 Applications of nuclear energy 11.3.1 Medical, food, and agricultural applications of radioisotopes 11.3.2 Radioisotopes in industry References 12 Modern nuclear power plant 12.1 General arrangement and major components 12.1.1 Heat balance diagrams 12.1.2 Equipment areas 12.2 Nuclear island as the core element 12.2.1 Classification of reactors 12.2.2 Types of reactor and nuclear steam supply system 12.2.2.1 Types of reactor 12.2.2.2 Pressurized water reactors (PWR) 12.2.2.3 Boiling water reactor (BWR) 12.2.2.4 Light-water graphite-moderated reactor (LWGR) 12.2.2.5 Pressurized heavy-water reactor (PHWR) 12.2.2.6 Gas-cooled reactor (GCR) 12.2.2.7 Fast breeder reactor (FBR) 12.3 Conventional island technology and balance of plant systems 12.3.1 Overview 12.3.2 Steam turbines and generators 12.3.2.1 Steam turbine 12.3.2.2 Generator 12.3.2.3 Accessories and auxiliary systems 12.3.3 Balance of plant systems and their importance 12.3.3.1 Mechanical BOP Heat rejection system Spent fuel storage ponds 12.3.3.2 Electrical BOP Power transfer system Auxiliary power supply Instrumentation and control system 12.4 Nuclear power plant safety 12.4.1 Nuclear accidents and their consequences 12.4.2 Active and passive safety 12.4.3 Redundancy 12.4.4 Defense-in-depth References 13 Development of sustainable nuclear power plant project 13.1 Nuclear power plant project justification 13.1.1 Feasibility study and project key drivers 13.1.1.1 Feasibility study 13.1.1.2 Electrical system analysis 13.1.1.3 System capacity 13.1.1.4 Siting 13.1.1.5 Preliminary site layout 13.1.1.6 Technology and fuel cycle assessment 13.1.1.7 Environmental impact assessment 13.1.2 Nuclear power plant financing mechanisms 13.1.3 Schedule and lifetime estimation 13.2 Nuclear power plant lifecycle management 13.3 Nuclear decommissioning 13.3.1 Nuclear decommissioning methodologies 13.3.2 Decommissioning strategy 13.3.3 Concluding remarks 13.4 Motivation for sustainable nuclear power generation References Part 5 Sustainable hydropower 14 Traditional hydropower plant technology 14.1 Concept of sustainable hydroenergy utilization 14.1.1 Hydroenergy cycle and conversion 14.1.2 Hydroenergy potential 14.2 Types and configurations of hydropower plant 14.2.1 Run-of-river and diversion 14.2.2 Reservoir and storage 14.2.3 Pumped storage 14.2.4 Head height classification 14.3 Modern hydropower plant 14.4 Civil structures and waterways 14.4.1 Dam 14.4.1.1 Rock-fill and earth-fill dams 14.4.1.2 Concrete dams 14.4.2 Spillway and overflow channel 14.4.3 Water intake, penstock, and tailrace 14.4.4 Other waterway structures 14.5 Energy conversion equipment within power block 14.5.1 Efficient hydroturbine 14.5.2 Hydrogenerator 14.5.3 Balance of plant systems References 15 Hydropower project lifecycle 15.1 Introductory 15.2 Feasibility study and economic drivers 15.3 Design and construction 15.3.1 Bidding process 15.3.2 Design and construction 15.3.3 Commissioning 15.4 Lifecycle management 15.4.1 Operation and maintenance activities and costs 15.4.2 Hydroelectric power plant upgrades 15.5 Hydropower as part of sustainable energy system References Part 6 Emerging sustainable energy systems 16 Wind energy 16.1 Wind resources and installed capacity 16.1.1 Wind quality and speed 16.1.2 Installed capacity 16.2 Wind power plants 16.2.1 Wind turbine and its components 16.2.2 Balance of plant 16.3 Wind farm project lifecycle 16.3.1 Feasibility study 16.3.2 Wind park project execution 16.3.3 Repowering and decommissioning 16.4 Sustainability attributes References 17 Solar energy 17.1 Solar energy potential and conversion 17.2 Concentrating solar power 17.2.1 Plant configuration 17.2.2 Solar receivers 17.2.2.1 Parabolic trough 17.2.2.2 Central receiver or power tower 17.2.2.3 Parabolic dish 17.2.3 Thermal storage 17.2.4 Power island and balance of plant 17.2.5 Project cost analysis 17.3 Solar photovoltaic system 17.3.1 Types of solar PV systems 17.3.2 Major technologies 17.3.2.1 Wafer-based systems 17.3.2.2 Thin-film 17.3.2.3 Emerging technologies 17.3.3 Project cost analysis 17.4 Sustainability attributes References 18 Energy from municipal solid waste 18.1 Waste and its management strategies 18.2 Waste-to-energy concept 18.2.1 Traditional steam cycle 18.2.2 Combustion of syngas in gas turbines or gas engines 18.2.3 Use of landfill gas 18.3 Waste-to-energy plant configuration 18.3.1 Boiler island 18.3.1.1 Waste reception and treatment 18.3.1.2 Boiler 18.3.1.3 Emissions and process waste treatment 18.3.2 Power island and balance of plant 18.4 Project evaluation and economics 18.5 Sustainability challenges and environmental issues References 19 Bioenergy 19.1 Bioenergy for electricity generation 19.2 Sources of biomass feedstock and their treatment 19.2.1 Sources of feedstock 19.2.1.1 Forestry residue and wood waste 19.2.1.2 Agricultural residue 19.2.2 Processes of treating feedstock 19.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 19.2.2.2 Gasification 19.2.2.3 Anaerobic digestion 19.3 Biomass power plants 19.3.1 Direct combustion of solid biomass 19.3.2 Integrated gasification 19.3.3 Biomass energy economics 19.4 Biomass energy sustainability questions References 20 Geothermal energy 20.1 Geothermal resources, current use, and potential 20.1.1 Types of geothermal resources 20.1.2 Status and installed capacities 20.2 Types of geothermal power plant 20.2.1 Single flash system 20.2.2 Double and triple flash systems 20.2.3 Dry steam system 20.2.4 Binary cycle system 20.2.5 Mixed and combined cycles 20.3 Plant configuration 20.3.1 Steam gathering system 20.3.2 Power island 20.3.2.1 Steam turbine and generator 20.3.2.2 Balance of plant 20.4 Geothermal project development 20.4.1 Exploration and feasibility study 20.4.2 Investment decision 20.4.3 Project execution phases and lifecycle 20.5 Challenges and sustainability issues 20.5.1 Effects on climate-relevant emissions 20.5.2 Geologic impact 20.5.3 Water impact and land use 20.5.4 Perspectives of geothermal power References 21 Ocean energy conversion 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Energy from the ocean streams and tidal range 21.2.1 Energy potential 21.2.2 Major approaches 21.2.3 Project economics and future perspectives 21.3 Energy from the ocean waves 21.3.1 Wave energy potential 21.3.2 Wave energy conversion technologies 21.3.3 Project economics 21.3.4 Challenges and perspectives 21.4 Ocean thermal energy 21.4.1 Technology and cycle 21.4.2 Economic perspectives 21.5 Salinity gradient energy References Part 7 Future of sustainable power generation 22 Can we build a sustainable power generation system? 22.1 Introductory 22.2 Long-term sustainable energy system 22.2.1 Available energy resources 22.2.2 Climate-relevant emissions 22.2.3 Economic comparison 22.3 The importance of climate change regulation 22.3.1 Current status of regulation 22.3.2 Climate engineering 22.4 How should we power the world? References 23 Sustainable electricity management beyond generation 23.1 Energy system and future challenges 23.2 The concept of a smart grid 23.3 Energy storage 23.3.1 Flywheel 23.3.2 Pumped hydro 23.3.3 Compressed air 23.3.4 Thermal energy storage 23.3.5 Supercapacitors 23.3.6 Batteries 23.3.7 Comparison and trends 23.4 Hydrogen as an emerging energy carrier 23.4.1 Production and storage 23.4.2 Conversion of hydrogen and fuel cells 23.4.3 The future of hydrogen References 24 Transitions towards a sustainable power generation system of the future 24.1 What is going on? 24.2 Major transitions in power generation industry 24.2.1 Centralized to decentralized power 24.2.2 Fossil to renewable power in the long run 24.2.3 Digitalization and analytics 24.2.4 Efficiency game 24.3 Transitions beyond energy system 24.3.1 Electrification of things 24.3.2 Digital transformation of industry 24.3.3 Sustainable cities 24.4 Sustainability education 24.4.1 The need for sustainability education 24.4.2 Desirable features of the sustainability education 24.4.3 Concluding remarks 24.5 Our common future References Index Sustainable Power Generation: Current Status, Future Challenges, and Perspectives addresses emerging problems faced by the transition to sustainable electricity generation and combines perspectives of engineering and economics to provide a well-rounded overview. This book features an in-depth discussion of the main aspects of sustainable energy and the infrastructure of existing technologies. It goes on to evaluate natural resources that are sustainable and convenient forms of energy, and finishes with an investigation of the environmental effects of energy systems and power generating systems of the future. Other sections tackle fundamental topics such as thermal power, nuclear energy, bioenergy, hydropower, challenges and risks to sustainable options, and emerging technologies that support global power trends. Sustainable Power Generation explores the future of sustainable electricity generation, highlighting topics such as energy justice, emerging competences, and major transitions that need to be navigated. This is an ideal reference for researchers, engineers, and other technical specialists working in the energy sector, as well as environmental specialists and policy makers. Provides a multidisciplinary, structured approach to electricity generation, focusing on the key areas of technology, business, project management, and sustainability Includes analytics and discussions of sustainability metrics, underlying issues, and challenges Presents business cases, offering a mix of academic depth and practicality on energy options