Sustainable Management of Nematodes in Agriculture, Vol.1: Organic Management (Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection, 18)

The present work covers many aspects of plant nematode management using organic strategies. These range from applications of latest understandings of fundamental concepts/mechanisms of nematode control, to modern tools and techniques used in efficacy evaluation. The Volume also includes some case studies/applied aspects of organic nematode pest management. Chemical and physical control measures used for nematode management have their own implications. Against this backdrop, organic management of plant nematodes appears as a more rational and sustainable approach. However, concise information on the current topic is scarce. This book is a sincere effort to bridge this void as we aim to provide the most updated, critical and in-depth knowledge synthesized by many experts working in the field of plant nematology, worldwide. Preface Contents Part I: Organic Management of Nematodes: Paradigms and Mechanisms Chapter 1: Use of Natural and Residual Resources for the Sustainable Management of Phytonematodes: Challenges and Future Trends 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Plant Extracts 1.3 Essential Oil 1.4 Fungal Extracts 1.5 Sustainable Management: Use of Cover Crops and Plant Residues 1.6 Animal and Agro-industrial Wastes 1.7 Blends 1.8 Challenges and Future Trends 1.9 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Organic Nematicides: A Green Technique and Its Overview for Nematode Pest Management 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Organic Nematode Management 2.2.1 Organic Nematicide Sources 2.2.2 Plants and Their By-Products 2.2.3 Organic Manures 2.2.4 Agro-Industrial Wastes 2.2.5 Oil Cakes 2.2.6 Biochar 2.2.7 Chitosan 2.3 Mechanisms and Modes of Action 2.3.1 Release of Nematotoxic Materials 2.3.2 Effect on Nematode Development 2.3.2.1 Soil Effects 2.3.2.2 C/N Ratios 2.3.2.3 Stimulation of PPN Natural Enemies 2.3.2.4 Impact of Organic Nutrients on Plant Growth 2.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 3: Nematode Management Prospects in Composting 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Compost Preparation 3.3 Compost Maturity and Nematode Management 3.4 Nematode Interactions in a Composting System 3.5 Compost Prospect in Nematode Management 3.5.1 Compost Water Extract in Nematode Management 3.5.2 Compost, Soil Fertility and Suppression of Parasitic Nematodes 3.5.3 Compost as a Carrier for Biological Enhancement of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Other Beneficial Microorganisms 3.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 4: Biochemical/Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Nematode Management Through Organic Amendments: A Critical Review 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Inhibition of Nematode Biology Following Organic Amendment 4.2.1 Effects Resulting from Physical and Chemical Changes to Soil 4.2.2 Nematicidal Plant Secondary Metabolites 4.2.2.1 Saponins 4.2.2.2 Neem Limonoids 4.2.2.3 Allicin 4.2.2.4 α-terthienyl 4.2.2.5 Isothiocyanates 4.2.3 Nematicidal Products of Degradation 4.3 Effects on Nematodes Through an Increase in Antagonistic Microbes 4.3.1 Nematode Suppressive Soils 4.3.2 Organic Amendments and Nematode-Antagonist Interaction 4.3.3 Chemical Warfare Waged on PPNs by Predators 4.4 Mechanisms for Enhancement in Plant Tolerance to Pests Following Amendment 4.4.1 Cell Wall Modification or Fortification 4.4.2 Through Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR) 4.4.3 Adaptation of Plant Exudate Profile or Modification by Microbes 4.5 Caveats to the Assessment of Nematode Control Efficacy Following Organic Amendments 4.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 5: Agroindustrial By Products Suppressing Plant-Parasitic Nematodes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Types of Byproducts 5.2.1 Castor Bean Cake (Ricinus Communis L.) 5.2.2 Crambe Cake (Crambe Abyssinica Hochst) 5.2.3 Bokashi 5.2.4 Poultry Litter 5.2.5 Cattle Manure 5.2.6 Byproducts of the Sugarcane Industry 5.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Chapter 6: Nematode Management by Humic Acids 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Nematode Control by Organic Amendments 6.3 Effect of Various Organic Acids on Nematodes 6.4 Humic Acids 6.4.1 Chemistry of Humic Acids 6.4.2 Effect of Humic Acids on Growth and Yield 6.4.3 Effect of Humic Acid on Soil Microbes 6.4.4 Effect of Humic Acid in Plant Disease Management 6.5 Effect of Humic Acid in Nematode Management 6.5.1 Mode of Action of Humic Acids on Nematodes 6.5.2 Compatibility of Humic Acids with Biocontrol Agents 6.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 7: Conventional and Organic Management as Divergent Drivers for Plant Parasitic Nematodes Control 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Nematicidal Compounds Released by Plants 7.3 Organic Compounds and Amendments 7.3.1 Glucosinolate-Derived Compounds 7.3.2 Low Molecular Weight Organic Compounds (LMWOA) 7.3.3 Nitrogenous Compounds 7.3.4 Glycoside-Derived Compounds 7.3.5 Saponins 7.4 Antagonistic Components in PPN Management 7.4.1 Residual Plants 7.4.2 Animal Waste 7.4.3 Composting 7.4.4 Chitinases 7.4.5 Other Organic Components 7.5 Soil Microbiota 7.6 Botanical Amendments in PPNs Management 7.6.1 Essential Oils 7.6.2 Plant Extracts 7.6.3 Organic Composts and Biochar 7.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Part II: Organic Management of Nematodes: Global Case studies and Success Stories Chapter 8: Plant Extracts and Their Effects on Plant-Parasitic Nematodes, with Case Studies from Africa 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Plants Studied for Plant-Parasitic Nematode Management in Africa 8.2.1 Arbutus pavarii Pamp 8.2.2 Artemisia herba-alba Asso 8.2.3 Azadirachta indica A. Juss 8.2.4 Brassica oleracea L. 8.2.5 Ceratonia siliqua L. 8.2.6 Cucumis africanus Linn fil and C. myriocarpus Naudin (Fig. 8.1) 8.2.7 Ficus exasperata Vahl 8.2.8 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. 8.2.9 Jatropha curcas L. 8.2.10 Juniperus phoenicea L. 8.2.11 Lantana camara L. 8.2.12 Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng 8.2.13 Moringa oleifera Lam 8.2.14 Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem 8.2.15 Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G. Don 8.2.16 Peganum harmala L. 8.2.17 Phillyrea angustifolia L. 8.2.18 Pistacia lentiscus L. 8.2.19 Punica granatum L. 8.2.20 Raphanus raphanistrum L. 8.2.21 Ricinus communis L. var. communis 8.2.22 Salvia rosmarinus Spenn 8.2.23 Senna alata (L.) Roxb 8.2.24 Capsicum frutescens L. var. Serrano 8.2.25 Sesamum indicum L. 8.2.26 Sinapis arvensis L. 8.2.27 Solanum incanum Ruiz and Pavón 8.2.28 Spirosfachys africana Sond. 8.2.29 Tagetes minuta L. 8.2.30 Taxus baccata L. 8.2.31 Thymus satureioides Coss. and Ball. 8.2.32 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray 8.3 In vitro Effects of Plant Extracts on Suppression of Nematodes in Africa 8.4 In vivo Effect of Plant Extracts on Suppression of Nematodes in Africa 8.5 Mode of Action of Plant Extracts and Composition 8.6 Challenges and Future of phytonematicide in Africa References Chapter 9: Non-chemical Management of the Citrus Nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans (Nematoda: Tylenchulidae) 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Management of the Citrus Nematode 9.2.1 Exclusion 9.2.1.1 Cultivation in Virgin or Non-infested Soils 9.2.1.2 Using Nematode-Free Plant Materials 9.2.1.3 Irrigation with Non-infested Water 9.2.1.4 Quarantine and Certification 9.2.2 Eradication 9.2.3 Crop Husbandry 9.2.4 Sanitation 9.2.5 Soil Solarization 9.2.6 Other Cultural Practices 9.2.6.1 Crop Rotation 9.2.6.2 Mulching 9.2.6.3 Irrigation 9.2.6.4 Soil Tillage 9.2.6.5 Weed Control 9.2.6.6 Gardening Practices 9.2.7 Organic Soil Amendments 9.2.8 Botanical Extracts 9.2.9 Biological Control 9.2.9.1 Fungi 9.2.9.2 Bacteria 9.2.9.3 Predatory Nematodes 9.2.9.4 Predatory Mites 9.2.10 Resistance and Tolerance 9.2.10.1 Importance of Nematode Biotypes in Resistance 9.2.10.2 Resistance Mechanisms in Citrus Rootstocks 9.2.10.3 Resistance in Grapevine Varieties 9.3 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 10: Organic Management of Rice Root-Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Diagnosis of Meloidogyne graminicola 10.3 Damage and Symptoms 10.4 Biology and Life-Cycle 10.5 Host Range 10.6 GeographicDistribution 10.7 Global Economic Significance 10.8 Organic Managements 10.8.1 Host Resistance 10.8.1.1 Induced Resistance 10.8.1.2 Resistant Cultivars and Germplasm 10.8.2 Organic Amendments 10.8.3 Use of Botanical Nematicides 10.8.4 Use of Oil Cakes 10.8.5 Use of Manures/Composts 10.8.6 Biofumigation 10.8.7 Biochar 10.9 Integrated Nematode Management 10.10 Drawback of Organic Management 10.11 Future Prospects for M. graminicola Organic Management 10.12 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Strategies for the Organic Management of Root-Knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in Vineyards Under Desert Conditions in the North Coast of Peru 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Cultivation and Economic Importance of Grapevine 11.1.2 Climatic Characteristics and Grapevine Management 11.2 Grapevine Nematodes 11.2.1 Root-Knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) 11.2.1.1 Geographic Distribution of RKN species in the Northern Coast of Peru 11.2.1.2 Symptoms and Damage 11.3 Decision-Making Tools in Organic Management of Root-Knot Nematodes in Grapevine 11.3.1 Case Studies of Reaction and Populations Dynamics of Root-Knot Nematodes in Grapevine Rootstocks 11.4 Organic Management Strategies for Root-Knot Nematodes in Grapevine 11.4.1 Management Strategies and Control Options in Desert Conditions 11.4.1.1 Strategy Design 11.4.2 Control Options and Tactics in an Organic Management System 11.4.2.1 Incorporation of Animal Manure 11.4.2.2 Biological Control 11.4.2.3 Plant Extracts 11.4.2.4 Microbial Amendments 11.4.3 Timing of Applications 11.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Chapter 12: Organic Management Strategies for Nematode Control in Florida Plasticulture 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Economic Importances of Nematodes in Florida 12.3 Host Range and Distribution of RKN and STN 12.4 Biology and Symptoms Produced 12.4.1 Root-Knot Nematodes 12.4.2 Sting Nematodes 12.5 Interactions with Other Pathogens 12.6 Management Options 12.6.1 Cover Crops 12.6.2 Host Resistance 12.6.3 Vegetable Grafting 12.6.4 Steam 12.6.5 Physical and Biologically-Based Soil Disinfestation 12.6.5.1 Soil Solarization 12.6.5.2 Biosolarization 12.6.5.3 Anaerobic Soil Disinfestation 12.6.6 Organic Nematicides and Biocontrol Agents 12.6.7 Sustainable Nematode Control 12.7 Conclusion and Future Outlook References Chapter 13: Eco-friendly Management of False Root-Knot Nematode Nacobbus aberrans: An Overview 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Host Range and Life Cycle 13.3 Morphological and Molecular Detection 13.4 Organic Management Strategies 13.4.1 Organic Amendments 13.4.2 Plant Extracts 13.4.3 Trap Crops and Antagonistic Plants 13.4.4 Host Resistance 13.4.5 Biological Control Agents 13.4.6 Other Healthy Management Practices 13.5 Conclusions and Future Directions References Chapter 14: Organic Amendments and Other Strategies for Management of Meloidogyne spp. and Nacobbus aberrans in Horticultural and Orchard Crops: The Mexican Experience 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Soil and Microorganism Interactions 14.3 Meloidogyne spp. 14.3.1 Meloidogyne spp. Management 14.4 Nacobbus aberrans 14.5 Root-Knot Nematodes (RKN) Meloidogyne spp. and Nacobbus aberrans in Mexico 14.6 Organic Management of Meloidogyne spp. and Nacobbus aberrans 14.6.1 Biofumigation with Organic Amendments 14.6.2 Plant Extracts, Metabolites and Potential vs RKN 14.6.3 Mechanism of Action of Secondary Metabolites 14.6.4 Nematicidal Activity of Mexican Native Plant Extracts 14.7 Mexican Experiences on PPN Management 14.7.1 Control of M. arenaria Using Vermicompost, Green Manure, Chicken Manure, and P. chlamydosporia var. chlamydosporia in a Guava Crop 14.7.2 Integrated Management of N. aberrans and M. incognita in Tomato Under Greenhouse Conditions 14.7.3 Intercropping System for the Control of N. aberrans 14.7.4 Effect of Chitin-Chitosan in Degrading M. incognita and N. aberrans Eggs 14.8 Biological Interactions Among Nematode Control Methods 14.9 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Non-conventional Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes in Musaceas Crops 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Main PPN Associated with Plantain and Banana 15.2.1 Radopholus similis Coob (Burrowing nematode) 15.2.1.1 Distribution 15.2.1.2 Symptoms 15.2.1.3 Life Cycle 15.2.1.4 Plant-Nematode Relationship 15.2.1.5 Hosts 15.2.2 Pratylenchus spp. Filipjepv, 1936 (Root-Lesion Nematode) 15.2.2.1 Distribution 15.2.2.2 Symptoms 15.2.2.3 Life Cycle 15.2.2.4 Plant-Nematode Relationship 15.2.2.5 Hosts 15.2.3 Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford & Oliveira, 1940 (Reniform Nematode) 15.2.3.1 Distribution 15.2.3.2 Life Cycle 15.2.3.3 Hosts 15.2.4 Meloidogyne spp. (Root-Knot Nematode, RKN) 15.2.4.1 Distribution 15.2.4.2 Symptoms 15.2.4.3 Life Cycle 15.2.5 Plant-Nematode Relationship 15.2.5.1 Hosts 15.2.6 Helicotylenchus spp. (Spiral Nematodes) 15.2.6.1 Life Cycle 15.2.6.2 Host 15.2.7 Others Nematodes Genera Associated with Musa spp. 15.3 Cultural and Biological PPN Management 15.3.1 Selection of Seedling Material 15.3.2 Fallow 15.3.3 Cover Crop 15.3.4 Intercropping 15.3.5 Crop Rotation 15.3.6 Biological Control 15.4 Organic PPN Management with Phytochemicals 15.4.1 Biofumigation 15.4.2 Plant Essential Oils 15.4.2.1 Geraniol 15.4.2.2 Geranyl Acetate 15.4.2.3 Citronellol 15.4.2.4 Cinnamyl Acetate 15.4.2.5 Eucalyptol 15.4.2.6 Limonene 15.4.2.7 Thymol 15.4.3 Plant Extracts 15.5 Conclusion and Prospects References Chapter 16: Neem Cake Amendment and Soil Nematode Spatio-Temporal Dynamics: A Case Study in the Brazilian Semiarid Region 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Study Design 16.2.1 Climate of the Study Area 16.2.2 Estimation of Nematode Densities and Identification 16.2.3 Statistical Analyses 16.3 Major Findings 16.3.1 Nematode Assemblages and Descriptive Statistics 16.3.2 Spatio-Temporal Distribution 16.3.3 Mapping Nematode Spatial Distribution 16.4 Conclusions References