Sustainable Futures in Southern Africa’s Mountains: Multiple Perspectives on an Emerging City (Sustainable Development Goals Series)

This open access book presents multiple disciplinary perspectives on the challenges and opportunities for sustainable development in the South African mountain city of Phuthaditjhaba. These challenges are embedded in the complex environmental, socio-cultural and political contexts of the region. Established as the capital of the QwaQwa ‘homeland’ under Grand Apartheid, this city is now home to between 400,000 – 700,000 people but in many areas lacks formal infrastructure and services. Each chapter of this volume addresses a different aspect of the city’s development and all take the UN Sustainable Development Goals as a common framework to guide their reflections on potential sustainable futures for Phuthaditjhaba. While the circumstances in Phuthaditjhaba will be familiar to many researchers of informal and growing cities in developing regions, the mountain setting of the city brings its own set of challenges and opportunities linked to the rugged and steep terrain, remoteness and natural resources. This book serves to showcase the diverse research taking place in this emerging mountain city and provide reflections on how a sustainable future can be ensured for its environment and inhabitants. Foreword by Francis Petersen and Martin Mandew Foreword by Ntate Thaele Pule Thaele Acknowledgements Contents 1 Introduction Abstract References 2 Phuthaditjhaba: The Rise and Fall of a Homeland Capital Abstract 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Phuthaditjhaba as Capital 2.3 Loss of Capital Status 2.4 The Future 2.5 Conclusion References 3 Planning for the Expansion of Phuthaditjhaba CBD Through UN Sustainable Development Goals Abstract 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Aim of the Study 3.2 Background of Study Area 3.3 Methodology 3.3.1 Study Site 3.4 Sustainable Development: Concepts and Effects in Africa 3.4.1 Constructs of Sustainable Development 3.4.2 Sustainable Development and Urban Governance in South Africa 3.5 The Sustainable Development Policy Agenda 3.5.1 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 3.5.2 New Urban Agenda 3.5.3 Agenda 2063 3.5.4 National Development Plan 3.5.5 Integrated Urban Development Framework 3.5.6 Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act No. 16 of 2013 3.6 Land Use Planning 3.6.1 Zoning as a Land-Use Tool 3.6.1.1 Form Based Codes 3.6.1.2 Overlay Zoning 3.7 Findings 3.7.1 Perceptions of Surrounding Homeowners 3.7.2 Responses from Businesses on the Expansion of the CBD 3.7.3 Responses from Town Planning Official and Observations of the Study Area 3.8 Discussion 3.9 Conclusion References 4 Using Local Spatial Biodiversity Plans to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals Abstract 4.1 Local Application of the Sustainable Development Goals 4.2 Methods 4.2.1 Critical Biodiversity Areas 4.2.2 Key Biodiversity Areas 4.2.3 Protected Areas and Protected Area Focus Areas 4.2.4 Strategic Water Source Areas 4.2.5 Analysis 4.3 Results and Discussion 4.3.1 Linking Biodiversity Plans to Sustainable Development Goals 4.3.2 Spatial Coverage of Biodiversity Features 4.4 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 5 Beneficial Role of Pollination and Soil Fertility for Soybean Production in Mountainous Farming Conditions Abstract 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Materials and Methods 5.2.1 Plant Materials and Crop Management 5.2.2 Experimental Site Description 5.2.3 Soil Sample Methodology 5.2.4 Experimental Design and Layout 5.2.5 Plant Physiological Growth Measurements 5.2.6 Pollinator Exclusion 5.2.7 Insect Visitation and Insect Sampling 5.2.8 Yield Measurements 5.2.9 Weather Data 5.3 Statistical Analyses 5.4 Results 5.4.1 The Weather and Soil Conditions 5.4.2 Yield Compositions 5.4.3 Plant Growth and Physiological Parameters 5.5 Discussion 5.6 Conclusions References 6 Surviving the Limits Imposed by a Changing Climate: The Case of Urban Drought and Water Supply Sustainability in Phuthaditjhaba Abstract 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Background: Relationship Between Climate Change and Water Supply in Urban Environments 6.2.1 Urban Drought and Water Availability 6.2.2 Urban Water Quality 6.2.3 Urban Drought and Water Security 6.3 Study Area 6.3.1 Data Sources 6.4 Results 6.5 Discussion 6.5.1 Culpabilities and Vulnerabilities 6.5.2 Navigating the Current Water Crisis 6.6 Conclusion References 7 Afromontane Community’s Dependence on the Water and Climate Change Nexus of the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountain Range: The Case of Phuthaditjhaba Abstract 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Methodology 7.3 The Climate of the Maloti-Drakensberg Range 7.4 Phuthaditjhaba, the Water-Deprived Water Catchment 7.5 Ecosystem Services in Phuthaditjhaba 7.6 Social Tensions Over Water in Phuthaditjhaba 7.7 Conclusion References 8 Planning for Effective and Sustainable Water Access and Provision in QwaQwa Through the UN Sustainable Development Goals Abstract 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Background to Qwaqwa 8.3 Sdg6 and 11: Sustainable Water Provision, Access and Management 8.3.1 SDG6: Ensure Availability and Sustainable Management of Water and Sanitation for Everyone 8.3.2 SDG11: Make Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient, and Sustainable 8.4 Literature Review 8.4.1 Water and Land as Commons 8.4.1.1 Water Access Rights 8.4.2 Contextualising the History of Planning in South Africa 8.4.2.1 1900–1947: Colonial Planning in South Africa 8.4.2.2 1948–1993: Spatial Planning, Forced Removals, and the Creation of Bantustans During Apartheid 8.4.2.3 1994–2021: Planning for Development and Basic Service Provision in Post-Apartheid South Africa 8.4.3 History of Water Governance in South Africa and Its Impact on QwaQwa 8.4.3.1 South African Water Governance: Pre-1652 8.4.3.2 South African Water Governance: 1652–1947 8.4.3.3 South African Water Governance: 1948–1993 8.4.3.4 Post-Apartheid Water Governance: 1994–2021 8.4.4 Defining Effective Planning for Water Access and Provision in QwaQwa 8.4.4.1 Process of Effective Planning 8.4.4.2 Benefits of Effective Planning 8.4.4.3 Barriers to Effective Planning 8.6 Findings and Discussion 8.6.1 The QwaQwa Water Crisis, as Reported by the Media 8.6.2 Inadequate Access and Provision of Water in QwaQwa: Quantitative Household Responses 8.6.2.1 Water Access and Provision Before and During the Reported Water Crisis: Quantitative Responses 8.6.2.2 The Contributing Factors that Led to the QwaQwa Water Crisis: Quantitative Responses 8.6.2.3 Water-Related Emotions of Provision and Access During the QwaQwa Water Crisis: Quantitative Responses 8.6.3 Inadequate Access and Provision of Water in QwaQwa: Qualitative Lived Experiences 8.6.4 Inadequate Access and Provision of Water in QwaQwa: Traditional Leaders’ Responses 8.6.5 Inadequate Access and Provision of Water in QwaQwa: Informal Encounters of QwaQwa Local Residents’ Lived Experiences 8.6.6 The Post-Apartheid Functioning of the Three Dams 8.7 Recommendations of Effective Planning Approaches for Adequate Water Access and Provision in Qwaqwa 8.8 Conclusion References 9 Virtual Disclosures and Self-emancipations: The Female Body and Self-identity on Online Platforms in Phuthaditjhaba Abstract 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women 9.3 Phuthaditjhaba: A Brief Historical Background 9.4 Methodology 9.5 Presentation and Discussion of Findings 9.6 The Trendsetter Identity: Empowerment Through Keeping Abreast with Modern Trends 9.7 Confident and Full-Bodied Identity: Empowerment Through Body Positivity 9.8 The Slimmy Portable Identity: Manipulating Popular Discourses About Beauty 9.9 The Yellow Bone Identity: The Quest for Relevancy 9.10 Curvaceous Identity: Emancipation by Playing with the Male Gaze 9.11 The Naturals Identity: Empowerment Through Self-affirmation 9.12 The Sexy Category as an Identity: “When You Look Good You Feel Good” 9.13 The Charismatic Identity: Empowerment through Appropriating Discursive Power 9.14 The Perfection Belle as an Identity: Breaking the Ceiling of Possibilities 9.15 Summary of Findings 9.16 Recommendations for Future Research 9.17 Conclusion References 10 SDGs as Indicators of Holistic Small Town Tourism Development. A Case for Phuthaditjhaba South Africa Abstract 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Background: Understanding the Nexus Between SDGs and Holistic Tourism 10.2.1 Poverty and the Notion of Decent Work in the Tourism Industry 10.2.2 Responsible Consumption During Economic Development Through Tourism 10.3 Methodology 10.3.1 Sources of Data and Document Selection 10.4 Research Results 10.4.1 Tourism in Phuthaditjhaba 10.4.2 Tourism and Poverty Reduction Through Decent Work in Phuthaditjhaba 10.4.3 Tourism and Climate Change 10.4.4 Economic Development Though Tourism and a Quest for Responsible Consumption 10.5 Discussion 10.6 Conclusion References 11 Exploring the of Establishment of an Urban Forest in Phuthaditjhaba to Create a More Sustainable Future Urban Environment Abstract 11.1 Imagining a Sustainable Urban Future 11.2 Municipal Structure and Planning for Climate Change at Phuthaditjhaba 11.3 Global Efforts to Achieve Urban Sustainability and Climate Resilience 11.4 Increased Urban Heat as a Health Threat 11.5 The Urban Heat Island Effect 11.6 Aim of This Study 11.7 Green Assets and Green Infrastructure 11.8 Developing Useful Relationships with Urban Trees 11.9 Modelling the Likely Success of Tree Planting in Urban Areas 11.10 Modelling the Future Tree Canopy at Phuthaditjhaba 11.11 A Quick Survey of the Urban Landscape in Phuthaditjhaba 11.12 Creating a Desire for Urban Greening 11.13 The Need for Quantitative Research 11.14 Phuthaditjhaba Tree Planting Master Plan 11.15 Bylaws and Urban Trees 11.16 Generating Livelihoods from Growing and Supplying Trees 11.17 Who Must Act? 11.18 Discussion and Recommendations References 12 Imagining the Future Phuthaditjhaba—Vision 2121 Abstract 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Vision 2121 12.3 500-Year Planning 12.4 Impediments to Planning a Visionary, Sustainable Phuthaditjhaba 12.4.1 Phuthaditjhaba’s Geo-Socio-Political Regime 12.4.2 The Current Planning Regime 12.5 Alternative Approaches for Sustainable Community Planning: A Comparative Analysis 12.5.1 UNDP’s Sustainable Development Goals 12.5.2 EcoDistricts Protocol® 12.5.3 Grabouw Pilot Project 12.5.4 Herbert Girardet’s Vision for “Creating Sustainable Cities” 12.6 Sustainable Community Principles 12.6.1 Environmental Principles 12.6.2 The Social Principles 12.6.3 Economic 12.7 The Principles Summarised 12.8 Identifying Communities 12.9 Recommendations for the Planning of Phuthaditjhaba’s Sustainable Future References 13 Conclusion Abstract