Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in an Era of Oil Scarcity : Lessons From Cuba

When other nations are forced to rethink their agricultural and food security strategies in light of the post-peak oil debate, they only have one living example to draw from: that of Cuba in the 1990s. Based on the first and, up till now, only systematic and empirical study to come out of Cuba on this topic, this book examines how the nation successfully headed off its own food crisis after the dissolution of the Soviet Bloc in the early 1990s. It identifies the policies and practices required for such an achievement under conditions of petroleum-scarcity, and in doing so it challenges the more common, free market development approach as encouraged in other food-insecure countries and regions. Paradoxically, the book debunks the myth that Cuba turned to a widespread organic approach to agriculture, a myth that is perpetuated by the majority of visitors to the country, who only encounter urban gardens. In rural regions, to which the author had authorized access, high-input and integrated agriculture was the intention, although practice was hampered by the fluctuations in availability of agrochemicals and fuel. Cuban institutions and individuals were confronted with a series of challenges to going down the organic route, and these challenges are identified as those that other countries will also have to face as they attempt to develop more sustainable, organic farming systems. The book counters the rhetoric of international policy on achieving sustainable agriculture and food security for developing countries in the context of dwindling global supplies of fossil fuels, and provides useful learning material for the current fledgling attempts at energy descent plans and the mainstreaming of eco-living in industrialized nations. Cover......Page 1 Semi Title......Page 2 Title......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 Figures......Page 8 Tables......Page 9 Boxes......Page 10 Preface and Acknowledgements......Page 12 Acronyms and names of Cuban institutions......Page 14 Non-Cuban acronyms......Page 16 Petroleum-based food systems and food security......Page 18 The Cuban food system in crisis......Page 19 The reported response to the crisis......Page 22 A snapshot of the Cuban experience in the 1990s......Page 23 Notes......Page 24 References......Page 25 The inevitable decline in fossil fuels and transition to alternatives......Page 28 Petroleum-dependent agriculture and food systems......Page 29 Business as usual or creative rvolution?......Page 31 Evidence of the ineffectiveness of the industrial farming and food system......Page 32 Degradation of the human resource base......Page 33 An ineffective food system......Page 35 The static state of agricultural development......Page 38 Transition and change to a post-petroleum farming and food system......Page 39 Characteristics of a post-petroleum food and farming system: localized and organic......Page 40 Policy and institutional mechanisms to support local and organic food systems......Page 43 Facilitating change to localized systems......Page 45 Notes......Page 46 References......Page 49 Research perspectives......Page 60 Places and people in the field......Page 61 Red threads affecting the research process......Page 62 References......Page 65 The agro-geography of Cuba......Page 66 Colonial food production......Page 69 Agrarian reform......Page 70 Political and productive specialization......Page 72 The further industrialization of Cuban agriculture......Page 73 Credit and Service Cooperative, CCS (Co-operative de Credito y Servico)......Page 77 Independent farmers (campesinos independientes, parceleros)......Page 78 The ration system and planned production......Page 79 The parallel and campesino maklets......Page 80 Dependency on food imports at the end of the 1980s......Page 81 Food consumption and health......Page 82 Signs of change at the end of the 1980s......Page 83 The crisis......Page 85 Economic and agricultural decline......Page 86 Summary......Page 89 Notes......Page 90 References......Page 91 Life after the crisis......Page 98 Successful state backing......Page 99 Parcel plots......Page 101 Production targets......Page 102 The use of agrochemicals in urban agriculture......Page 103 Organic production strategies......Page 104 Institutional support for urban agriculture......Page 105 Impact on food security......Page 107 References......Page 108 Overall food prioritisation......Page 110 Economic policy impacts on food strategies......Page 111 Easing of population growth......Page 112 Humanitarian development aid and political agendas......Page 113 The National Nutritional Action Plan......Page 114 Improving rural agricultural conditions......Page 116 Main production achievements......Page 117 Import, export and investment strategies......Page 120 The food distribution network......Page 122 Orientation towards provincial and local self-reliance......Page 123 The Food and Nutrition Surveillance System (SISVAN)......Page 125 Improving the efficiency of state food collection......Page 126 The early reinstatement of the parallel market......Page 127 Partial liberalization of agricultural markets......Page 128 Creation of 'free' farmers' markets and private food businesses......Page 129 The resulting range of marketing options for farmers......Page 131 Subsequent trends and challenges to the food system......Page 132 The resultant food system at the national and municipal levels......Page 134 Household food security coping strategies......Page 137 Policy on food adequacy in relation to agriculture......Page 140 Institutional responsibilities and post-crisis changes in health research......Page 141 Changes in dietary habits and the return of 'Western' disease......Page 142 Trends in food safety and health concerns......Page 145 Notes......Page 146 References......Page 147 The status of imported farm inputs in the 1990s......Page 152 Substitution with organic production techniques and system innovations......Page 153 Adapting agricultural education, training and support......Page 154 The dismantling of large-scale farms......Page 155 Changes in farm structures......Page 156 'Linking man to the land' (vinculacion del hombre al area)......Page 157 Changes in farm-gate prices and markets......Page 158 The reality of agrochemical application......Page 159 More important than agrochemicals: fuel shortages and adequate germplasm......Page 161 The extent of use of organic techniques and resulting land use patterns......Page 162 Pest and disease control coping strategies......Page 163 Traction coping strategies......Page 164 Changing land use patterns......Page 165 Farmers' preferred future production strategies......Page 166 Farmer knowledge levels and technical assistance......Page 168 Changes in overall management strategies......Page 172 Impacts of cooperativization and its support......Page 173 Changes in production costs, yields and incomes......Page 175 More diverse and flexible marketing arrangements......Page 177 On-farm food sef-provisioning......Page 179 The significance of continued petrol and agrochemical use......Page 181 References......Page 182 Wider influences on change......Page 186 The policy dilemma: increased yields or longer-term sustainability?......Page 187 Shortages of resources......Page 189 Institutional and individual coping strategies......Page 190 Partial decentralization and streamlining......Page 191 Attempts at integrated support for farmers......Page 194 Integrated input recommendations......Page 195 Provincial and municipal recycling and production of bio-fertilizers......Page 197 The vanguard transfer of eco-technology......Page 198 Attempts at changing the top-down research and extension approach......Page 199 Recognition of campesino production......Page 204 Institutional perspectives on the Special Period......Page 205 The belated development of certified organic agriculture......Page 206 The concurrent growth of the biotechnology industry......Page 209 The emerging components of a new type of agricultural system......Page 210 References......Page 211 Driving forces behind current levels of agricultural sustainability......Page 214 The agricultural sector in transition......Page 215 The Cuban interpretation of organic agriculture......Page 216 Farmers' experiential evidence on the performance of organic agriculture......Page 218 Scientific evidence on the performance of organic agriculture......Page 219 Future trajectories......Page 221 Influence of organic production on food availability......Page 222 Factors affecting scaling up......Page 223 The need to increase ecological literacy......Page 225 The need to support innovation and experimentation......Page 230 Increasing the availability of, and access to, appropriate resources and technology......Page 232 Environmental legislation > agricultural legislation......Page 234 Quantity incentive > quality incentive......Page 235 Social recognition of the need for change......Page 236 Potential driving forces for the scaling-up of organic agriculture......Page 237 Notes......Page 238 References......Page 239 Cuba's successes: a united social front......Page 242 Cuba's challenges: the health imperative......Page 245 Trends in fuel and food imports......Page 247 Trends in domestic environment and energy investment......Page 248 Trends in domestic agriculture and food supplies......Page 249 A new wave of reforms at the end of the 2000s......Page 251 Urban vs rural agriculture......Page 252 Underlying challenges to implementing widespread organic systems......Page 253 Degrees of learning and transition......Page 254 Future directions: the need for knowledge and intent......Page 255 Implications of the Cuban experience for global agriculture and food security......Page 256 References......Page 257 Appendix A: Extent of Organic Techniques by Farmers Surveyed......Page 260 Appendix B: Agriculture and Food Related Institutions in the Early 1990s......Page 262 B......Page 268 C......Page 269 D......Page 270 F......Page 271 I......Page 272 M......Page 273 O......Page 274 R......Page 275 T......Page 276 V......Page 277 Y......Page 278 When other nations are forced to rethink their agricultural and food security strategies in light of the post-peak oil debate, they only have one living example to draw from: that of Cuba in the 1990s. Based on the first and - up till now - only systematic and empirical study to come out of Cuba on this topic, this book examines how the nation successfully headed off its own food crisis after the dissolution of the Soviet Bloc in the early 1990s. The author identifies the policies and practices required for such an achievement under conditions of petroleum-scarcity and in doing so, challenges the mainstream globalized and privatized food systems and food security strategies being driven through in both industrialized and more vulnerable developing regions. Paradoxically, the book dispels the myth that Cuba turned to organic farming nationwide, a myth founded on the success of Cuba's urban organic production systems which visitors to the country are most commonly exposed to. In rural regions, where the author had unique access, industrialized high-input and integrated agriculture is aspired to for the majority of domestic production, despite the ongoing fluctuations in availability of agrochemicals and fuel. By identifying the challenges faced by Cuban institutions and individuals in de-industrializing their food and farming systems, this book provides crucial learning material for the current fledgling attempts at developing energy descent plans and at mainstreaming more organic food systems in industrialized nations. It also informs international policy on sustainable agriculture and food security for less-industrialized countries. Cuba: providing the model for a post-petroleum food system? Post petroleum food systems: transition and change Researching Cuba The historical context: Cuban agriculture and food systems of the twentieth century Life after the crisis: the rise of urban agriculture From dependency to greater self-reliance: transformation of the Cuban food system Cuban food production in the 1990s: a patchwork of approaches Institutional coping strategies: transition and decentralisation Perspectives on the mainstreaming of local organic food systems Lessons for the future: Cuba ten years on. Based on original research by the author, who had unique access to the rural areas of Cuba, this book provides the only example of a how a country's agriculture and food supply have coped with conditions of post-peak oil