Sustainability Science and Engineering, Volume 2: Sustainable Water for the Future (Water Recycling versus Desalination)

This book is part of a series on sustainability. Specifically, it deals with the issue of sustainable water use. Fresh sources of potable water are being depleted across the world. Pure water is the goal of water utilities as well as several industries. Well past the experimental stage, membrane processes are now a proven and reliable method of providing high-quality, cost-effective water. Membrane technologies have immediate applications to treatment of fresh, brackish and sea waters, as well as wastewater reclamation. With innovative module design and engineering, micro- and ultra-filtrations have become effective and economical for drinking water production, particularly for removal of microorganisms. Membrane bioreactors are being developed for municipal and industrial water recycling. Various membrane processes are also used to remove contaminants from industrial wastewaters. This book covers the fundamental and practical concepts and issues regarding the application of membrane technologies for sustainable water treatment. It describes and compares the effectiveness of desalination versus water recycling for long-term sustainable water use. - Describes the global water situation with respect to sustainability - Emphasizes the role of membrane technologies - Compares the strategies of water recycling and desalination Sustainability Science and Engineering......Page 2 Sustainable Water for the Future: Water Recycling versus Desalination......Page 3 Elsevier.pdf......Page 4 Dedications......Page 5 List-of-contributors.pdf......Page 6 Foreword.pdf......Page 9 Acknowledgments.pdf......Page 11 An Overview of the Global Water Situation......Page 12 References......Page 14 Introduction......Page 15 Historical Development......Page 16 Global capacity by process......Page 19 Global capacity by use type......Page 20 Costs and energy demand of desalination processes......Page 22 Regional Desalination Situation......Page 25 The Mediterranean Sea......Page 27 Other regions......Page 31 Environmental Concerns of Seawater Desalination......Page 32 Discharges......Page 34 Energy demand......Page 39 Impact mitigation measures......Page 42 Summary and Conclusion......Page 43 References......Page 46 Introduction......Page 48 Short History of Reuse Applications......Page 50 Water Recycling Today......Page 51 Water Recycling in the USA......Page 52 Water Recycling in Asia......Page 59 Water Recycling in Europe......Page 61 Water Recycling in Australia......Page 63 Water Recycling in other Parts of the World......Page 65 Conclusions and Further Challenges......Page 67 References......Page 68 Introduction......Page 70 Membrane synthesis......Page 72 Driving forces for transport......Page 74 Types of reverse osmosis membranes......Page 75 Aromatic polyamide membranes......Page 76 Concentration polarization......Page 77 Compressible gel foulants......Page 79 Precipitation......Page 80 Biological fouling......Page 81 Predicting fouling......Page 82 Membrane cleaning......Page 84 Removal of inorganic contaminants......Page 85 Removal of organic contaminants......Page 86 Transport modeling......Page 87 Membrane distillation configurations......Page 88 Vacuum membrane distillation......Page 89 General......Page 90 Vapor pressure gradient......Page 91 Shell-and-tube modules......Page 93 Flat sheet modules......Page 94 Membrane fouling......Page 95 References......Page 96 Introduction......Page 99 Theoretical Potential of Salinity Gradient Energy......Page 101 Introduction......Page 105 Principle......Page 106 Concentration polarization......Page 107 Membranes for pressure-retarded osmosis......Page 110 Process design......Page 115 Pilot testing and upscaling1......Page 117 Introduction......Page 122 Principle......Page 123 Membranes for RED......Page 125 Process and stack design......Page 135 Pilot testing and scale-up2......Page 137 Concluding Remarks......Page 140 References......Page 141 Introduction......Page 144 The ion-exchange membranes, and their structure and function......Page 145 Principle of ion-exchange membrane processes......Page 146 Electrodialysis......Page 147 Electrodialysis with bipolar membranes......Page 148 Continuous electrodeionization......Page 149 Diffusion dialysis......Page 150 Donnan dialysis......Page 151 Capacitive deionization......Page 152 Electric current in electrolyte solutions and Ohm’s law......Page 155 Mass transport in ion-exchange membranes and electrolyte solutions......Page 157 Fluxes and driving force in ion transport......Page 158 The transport number and the membrane permselectivity......Page 159 Membrane counterion permselectivity......Page 161 Water transport in electrodialysis......Page 162 Ion-Exchange Membranes, and their Properties and Preparation......Page 163 Preparation of heterogeneous ion-exchange membranes......Page 164 Preparation of homogeneous ion-exchange membranes......Page 165 Special property membranes......Page 167 The Design of Ion-Exchange Membrane Separation Processes......Page 168 The electrodialysis stack and process parameters......Page 169 Concentration polarization and limiting current density......Page 170 Current utilization......Page 172 Electrodialysis equipment and plant design......Page 173 Investment-related costs......Page 176 Operating costs......Page 179 The bipolar membrane, and its structure and function......Page 181 System and process design of electrodialysis with bipolar membranes......Page 182 Investment costs in electrodialysis with bipolar membranes......Page 183 Operating costs in electrodialysis with bipolar membranes......Page 184 Problems in practical application of bipolar membrane electrodialysis......Page 185 System components and process design aspects......Page 186 Applications of Ion-Exchange Membrane Separation Processes......Page 188 Brackish water desalination by electrodialysis......Page 189 Production of industrial water by electrodialysis......Page 191 Food processing by electrodialysis......Page 192 Applications of bipolar membrane electrodialysis......Page 193 Applications of bipolar membranes in wastewater treatment......Page 195 Applications of bipolar membrane electrodialysis in biotechnology......Page 196 Applications of continuous electrodeionization......Page 197 List of symbols......Page 199 References......Page 201 Micropollutants in Water Recycling: A Case Study of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Exposure from Water versus Food ......Page 203 Introduction......Page 204 Formation pathways of NDMA......Page 205 Dichloramine-oxygen pathway during chloramination......Page 206 Precursors for and occurrence and fate of NDMA in drinking water and wastewater facilities......Page 207 Origin and occurrence of NDMA in food, drinks, and cigarette smoke......Page 209 Exposure to NDMA through water......Page 211 Exposure to NDMA through food, drinks, and smoking......Page 212 Exposure to NDMA through other sources......Page 214 Comparison of NDMA intake from various sources......Page 215 Regulation of NDMA in Drinking Water......Page 216 Minimization of NDMA formation......Page 217 Membrane filtration......Page 218 UV treatment......Page 220 References......Page 222 TiO2-Based Advanced Oxidation Nanotechnologies for Water Purification and Reuse......Page 229 Role of Advanced Oxidation Technologies for Innovative Water Treatment......Page 230 Mechanism of TiO2 Photocatalysis......Page 232 Generation of charge carrier species and their recombination......Page 233 Radical attack on organics......Page 234 Photocatalysis and photolysis......Page 235 Parameters affecting reaction kinetics......Page 236 Photocatalytic Water and Wastewater Treatment and Purification......Page 237 Applications of TiO2 Photocatalysis......Page 241 Reactor design and immobilization of TiO2......Page 242 TiO2 photocatalytic membranes......Page 244 TiO2 catalyst deactivation and fouling......Page 245 Environmental nanotechnology/advanced oxidation nanotechnologies......Page 246 Simultaneous generation of hydroxyl radicals and sulfate radicals......Page 248 Economic Aspect of TiO2 Photocatalysis......Page 249 Concluding Remark: Advanced Oxidation Nanotechnologies and Sustainability......Page 250 References......Page 251 Introduction......Page 255 Membrane Bioreactor Fundamentals......Page 256 Bioreactor fundamentals......Page 258 Categories of membranes......Page 261 Flux and fouling in membrane systems......Page 263 Contaminant Removal......Page 270 Application of Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Reuse......Page 275 Example of MBR application for wastewater reuse: City of Key Colony Beach (Florida): MBR used as pretreatment for reverse osmosis for wastewater reuse2......Page 276 References......Page 289 Introduction......Page 293 Background......Page 294 Concentrate Production......Page 295 Cation control through intermediate chemical demineralization (ICD)......Page 299 Electron donor and carbon source......Page 302 Hydrogen sulfide control......Page 303 Electrodialysis/electrodialysis reversal......Page 306 Capacitive deionization......Page 308 Thermal processes......Page 311 Vapor compression (VC)......Page 312 Membrane distillation......Page 313 Freeze concentration......Page 314 Forward osmosis......Page 316 Conclusion......Page 317 References......Page 320 Introduction......Page 325 Strategies for Inland Brine Disposal: ZLD and Fluidized Bed Crystallizers......Page 328 Beneficial Uses of Brine By-Products......Page 332 Las Vegas Valley Shallow Groundwater Study......Page 333 Test Results......Page 337 Treatment Costs and Energy Requirements......Page 341 Outcomes and Future Considerations......Page 345 References......Page 346 Introduction......Page 349 Wave energy......Page 350 Renewable Energy in the World Today......Page 351 Renewable Energy Powered Water Treatment Technologies......Page 356 Synergy between Renewable Energy Resource and Water Supply......Page 357 Small-Scale Renewable Energy Powered Membrane Filtration Plants......Page 363 Conclusions......Page 366 References......Page 367 Introduction......Page 370 Prior Work......Page 371 Questionnaire......Page 372 Results......Page 373 Conclusions......Page 379 References......Page 381 Conclusion: A Summary of Challenges still Facing Desalination and Water Reuse......Page 384 Challenges Facing Desalination......Page 385 Challenges Facing Water Reuse......Page 386 Energy......Page 388 Public perception......Page 389 References......Page 390 Subject-Index.pdf......Page 393