Sustainability in the Maritime Domain: Towards Ocean Governance and Beyond (Strategies for Sustainability)

This volume explores options for a sustainable maritime domain, including maritime transportation, such as, Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP), maritime education and training, maritime traffic and advisory systems, maritime security. Other activities in the maritime domain covered in the book include small-scale fisheries and sustainable fisheries, and greening the blue economy. The book aims to provide the building blocks needed for a framework for good ocean governance; a framework that will serve through the next decade and, and hopefully, well beyond the 2030 milepost of the UN Agenda for Sustainable Development. In short, this book brings together the problems of the current world and sustainable solutions that are in the development process and will eventually materialize in the not so distant future. Additionally, the book presents a trans-disciplinary analysis of integral sustainable maritime transportation solutions and crucial issues relevant to good ocean governance that have recently been discussed at different national, regional and international fora, highlighting ongoing work to develop and support governance systems that facilitate industry requirements, and meet the needs of coastal states and indigenous peoples, of researchers, of spatial planners, and of other sectors dependent on the oceans. The book will be of interest to researchers across many disciplines, especially those that are engaged in cross-sectoral research and developments in the maritime transport sector and across the wider maritime domain. To this end, the book covers areas including natural and social sciences, geographical studies, spatial planning, maritime security and gender studies, as they relate to transport and the wider maritime sector. In addition, the book explores frameworks for sustainable ocean governance being developed under the UN’s Agenda for Sustainable Development to 2030. It will also look beyond the 2030 milepost under that Agenda, and will be of use to national and international policymakers and practitioners, government actors at the EU and other regional and national levels and to researchers of ocean governance, sustainability and management, and maritime transport. Contents Chapter 1: Introducing Sustainability in the Maritime Domain References Part I: Moving to the Green-Blue Economy Chapter 2: Greening the Blue Economy: A Transdisciplinary Analysis 1 Introduction 2 Sustainability Actions 2.1 Sustainability Action 1: Standardize Inspection and Enforcement 2.2 Sustainability Action 2: Promote Solutions to Reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) and Other Atmospheric Pollutant Emissions Generated by the Maritime Transportation Sector 2.3 Sustainability Action 3: Design and Build Greener Ships 2.3.1 Energy Efficiency 2.3.2 Life and Safety at Sea 2.3.3 Automation 2.3.4 End of Life/End of Service 2.4 Sustainability Action 4: Treating Ballast Water with Low (or No) Impact Technology 2.5 Sustainability Action 5: Making Onboard Water Treatment Systems Safer for People and the Ocean 2.6 Sustainability Action 6: Greening Port Facilities 2.7 Sustainability Action 7: Improve Ship Safety and Emergency Response to Shipping Accidents 2.8 Sustainability Action 8: Make the Ocean Quieter 2.9 Sustainability Action 9: Operate to Avoid Whale Strikes 2.10 Sustainability Action 10: Expand Maritime Transportation Sector Engagement in Oceanic Data Collection and Monitoring 3 Looking Ahead: Establish a Framework for Maritime Transportation Governance That Supports All Life on Earth 4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 3: Regional Marine Spatial Planning: A Tool for Greening Blue Economy in the Bay of Bengal 1 Introduction 2 Blue Economy 3 Marine Spatial Planning 4 Blue Economy and Marine Spatial Planning 5 The Current Management Framework for the Bay of Bengal 5.1 Bay of Bengal Program Inter-governmental Organization Agreement 2003 5.2 Action Plan for the Protection and Management of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the South Asian Region 1995 5.3 SAARC Charter, Environment Action Plan and Convention on Cooperation on Environment 5.4 Declaration on the Establishment of the Bangladesh-India-Myanmar-Sri Lanka-Thailand for Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) 1997 6 The Management Framework, Blue Economy and Marine Spatial Planning in the Bay of Bengal 7 Conclusion References Chapter 4: Green Ports and Sustainable Shipping in the European Context 1 Introduction 1.1 The North Sea and Baltic Sea Region 1.2 The Mediterranean Sea Region 1.3 The Black Sea Region 2 Maritime Regulation in the European Regions 2.1 MARPOL in European Regions 2.2 European Pollution Prevention Regulations 2.2.1 Classification Society 2.2.2 Port State Control 2.2.3 Maritime Surveillance 2.2.4 Ship-Shore Pollution Prevention 3 Green Port Management Practices 4 Green Shipping Practices 5 A Conceptual Framework for Maritime Sustainability 6 Conclusions and Future Research Directions References Part II: Moving to a More Secure and Safe Maritime Regulatory Regime Chapter 5: Maritime Transport and Sustainable Fisheries: Breaking the Silos 1 Overview of the Global Efforts for Sustainable Fisheries and Maritime Transport 1.1 The Global Effort for Sustainable Fisheries and Port State Control 1.2 Interagency Cooperation: A Global Approach to Deter IUU Fishing and Increase Maritime Safety 2 The Way Forward: How to Break the Silos 2.1 Fighting IUU Fishing: Enhanced Global Cooperation, Strengthened Ocean Governance, and Improved Regional Compliance 2.2 Enhancing Sustainable Maritime Transport and SDG 14’s Implementation: Environmental Issues Related to Fisheries and Sea-Based Marine Plastic Litter 3 Conclusions References Chapter 6: Maritime Security: Adapting for Mid-century Challenges 1 Introduction 2 Collaborative Maritime Security 2.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 2.2 Maritime Security and the International Regulatory Governance 2.3 Collaborative Hard Security 3 Benchmarking Maritime Security Strategies 3.1 IMO 3.2 European Union 4 Embracing Multi-causality 5 Identifying the Main Drivers and Threats 6 Geopolitics and Breaking the Rules 7 Energy Markets and Maritime Security 7.1 The Geopolitics of Oil and Gas 7.2 Scenarios and Back-Casting 8 The Covid-19 Pandemics Impact on 2050 CO2 Emission Goals 9 Security Flashpoints 2050 10 Conclusion References Chapter 7: ISPS Code Implementation: Overkill and Off-Target 1 Introduction 2 ISPS Code Implementation in EU and Danish Legislation 2.1 Danish Implementation 2.2 Tactical Danish Method 3 Development of Plans 3.1 Ports and Port Facilities 3.2 Ship Security Assessment (SSA) 3.2.1 Security 4 Nature of Security 4.1 Acceptance of Risk, Example Iraq Vs. USA 4.2 Consequence and Risk of Exposal 4.3 Red Teaming 4.4 Barriers and Capacity 4.5 A Thesis of How to Assess Potential Terrorists 5 Combining Consequence and Risk of Exposal with Barriers and Capacity 5.1 Evaluation of the Efficiency in Perspective on “Return on Investment” 6 Security as Part of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 7 Towards a Better Security to Support SDGs and Beyond 7.1 Appropriate Security Measures 7.2 Sustainable Development Goal 14 Combined with Goal 17 8 Conclusion References Chapter 8: Port and Maritime Security and Sustainability 1 Introduction 2 Defining Sustainability and Resilience 3 Sustainable Development, Disruption, and the Maritime Domain 3.1 Threats to Maritime Security 3.2 Protection of Marine Resources 3.2.1 Piracy as a Result of Resource Unavailability 3.3 Enhancing the Focus on Cargo Security 3.4 Limitations of the ISPS Code 3.5 Expansion of Global Trade 3.6 “Just-in-Time” Delivery and the Sensitivity of Global Trade 3.7 The Convergence of Operational, Physical, and Digital Security 3.8 A Challenge of Governance 3.9 Maritime Security and Resilience 3.10 Protecting the Sea Lines of Communication 4 How Maritime and Port Security Can Support Sustainable Development References Chapter 9: Governance of International Sea Borders: Regional Approaches and Sustainable Solutions for Maritime Surveillance in the Mediterranean Sea 1 Introduction 2 Traditional Maritime Surveillance Operations and Conventional Techniques Within Maritime Spaces Defined by the UNCLOS 3 The Interplay Between EU Maritime Security Policies and Surveillance Activities in the Mediterranean Sea 4 The Management of the External Sea Borders in the EU and the Concept of Integrated Maritime Surveillance 5 EU InterAgency Cooperation and the Development of Sustainable Technologies to Detect Unlawful Activities in the Mediterranean Sea 5.1 Copernicus Maritime Surveillance Service 5.2 Unmanned Aircraft Systems 5.3 Maritime Autonomous Vehicles 6 Exploring the Nexus Between Maritime Surveillance Activities in the Mediterranean and Sustainable Approaches 6.1 Flexibility 6.2 Interoperability 6.3 Complementarity 7 Concluding Remarks References Part III: Improvements in Management/Technology of Best Practices for Sustainable Shipping Chapter 10: The Applicability of the International and Regional Efforts to Prevent Oil Pollution: Comparative Analysis Between the Arabian Gulf Region and the North Sea 1 Introduction 2 International Efforts to Curb Marine Oil Pollution 2.1 Importance of UNCLOS in Marine Pollution Prevention 2.2 Summary of International Conventions 2.3 Section Summary and Critical Analysis 3 Arabian Gulf Regional Marine Pollution Prevention Efforts 3.1 Summary of Regional Conventions to Curb Oil Marine Pollution 3.2 Section Summary and Critical Analysis 4 North Sea Regional Marine Pollution Prevention Efforts 4.1 Regional Efforts Towards Marine Pollution Prevention 4.2 Sources of Oil Pollution in the North Sea 4.3 Section Summary and Critical Analysis 5 Comparative Analysis Between the Arabian Gulf and North Sea Marine Pollution Prevention Activities 6 The Relation Between Oil Pollution Conventions, the SDGs, and Marine Transportation 6.1 SDGs and Maritime Transportation 6.2 Overview of the SDGs Role in Maritime Transportation 6.3 Linkages Between SDG 14, 17, and Transboundary Pollution 6.4 Transboundary Pollution in Accidental and Non-Accidental Oil Pollution 7 Conclusion References Chapter 11: Implications of Automation and Digitalization for Maritime Education and Training 1 Introduction 2 Maritime Autonomous Ship Operations 3 Future Competencies of Seafarers 4 The Role of Digital Technologies 5 Implication for Maritime Education and Training 6 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Synergies Between the Obligations and Measures to Reduce Vessel-Source Underwater Noise and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1 Introduction: Another Way Is Possible 1.1 Sustainable Development Goals 2 Underwater Noise as a Risk to Marine Life 2.1 Tackling Vessel-Source Underwater Noise 3 GHG Emissions from Ships 3.1 International Shipping and the Climate Change Regime Framework 3.2 The Kyoto Protocol 3.3 The Paris Agreement 3.4 Reducing GHG Emissions by Increasing Energy Efficiency 4 Managing Underwater Noise from Ships 4.1 Underwater Noise and the Law of the Sea 4.2 Generally Accepted International Rules and Standards 4.3 International Instruments to Reduce Underwater Noise and Mitigate Risks 5 Interlinkages Between the Reduction of GHG Emissions and Underwater Noise 5.1 Design, Construction, and Equipment 5.2 Operational Measures 5.2.1 Slow Steaming 5.2.2 Routeing Measures 5.3 Applying the Synergies Between Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions and Underwater Noise 6 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Sustainable Maritime Labour Governance: The Role of Transformative Partnership in Seafarers’ Welfare 1 Introduction 2 Seafarers and Port-Based Welfare Facilities 3 The Legal Frameworks of the Port-Based Welfare Facilities 3.1 Mandatory Standards: Regulation 4.4. and Standard A4.4 3.2 Guideline B4.4: Non-mandatory Recommendations 4 Public–Private Partnership in the Maritime Labour Welfare Governance 5 Concluding Discussion References Chapter 14: Underwater Noise from Shipping: A Special Case for the Arctic 1 The Arctic Ocean: A System Under Rapid Change 2 Shipping in the Arctic 2.1 Recent Trends in Arctic Shipping 2.2 Arctic Shipping in the Future 3 The Arctic Underwater Soundscape 3.1 Ambient Sound in the Arctic Ocean 3.2 Sound Propagation in the Arctic 3.3 A Changing Underwater Soundscape 4 Arctic Marine Wildlife and Sound 5 Impacts of Underwater Noise on Arctic Marine Life 6 Addressing Underwater Noise: From Monitoring to Management 6.1 Monitoring the Arctic Ocean Soundscape and Underwater Noise 6.2 Mitigating Impacts of Underwater Noise from Shipping 6.3 Policy to Guide Management of Underwater Noise 7 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Canadian Ports Sustainability: A Strategic Response to Disruptive Paradigms Such as COVID-19 1 Introduction 2 Ports in Canada 2.1 First Stage: National Harbours Board, 1931–1983 2.2 Second Stage: Canada Ports Corporation, 1983–1993 2.3 Third Stage: Canada Port Authorities, 1993–2020 3 Challenges Faced by Canadian Ports 3.1 Port Infrastructure 3.2 Protecting the Marine Environment 3.3 Duty to Consult 3.4 Supporting Port Communities 3.5 Financial Flexibility and Autonomy 3.6 Fourth Stage: Ports Modernisation? 4 Canadian Ports and Sustainability Planning 4.1 Sustainability of Canadian Port Authorities 4.2 International Environmental Collaboration 5 Canadian Port Traffic Prior to COVID-19 5.1 West Coast 5.2 Great Lakes 5.3 East Coast 6 Impact of COVID-19 on Canadian Ports 7 Looking Ahead to What Comes After the UN 2030 Agenda for Ports 7.1 Canada Transportation 2030: Waterways, Coasts and the North 7.2 Climate Change 7.3 Reduction of CO2 Emissions 7.4 Energy Transition 7.5 Energy Clusters 7.6 Circular Economy 7.7 Logistics and Supply Chains 7.8 Digitalisation of the Marine World 7.9 Nearshoring 8 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Lessons Learned from Robotics and AI in a Liability Context: A Sustainability Perspective 1 Introduction 2 Setting the Scene: Definitions of “Robotics” and “Artificial Intelligence” 2.1 Conceptualising “Robotics” and “Artificial Intelligence” 2.2 Robotics and Artificial Intelligence and Sustainability 3 Survey of Unmanned Marine Vessels 3.1 Degrees of Autonomy 3.2 Current State of the Art 4 Existing Legal Framework 5 Lessons Learned from AI and Robotics: European Union Context 5.1 Fault-Based Liability 5.2 Strict Liability 5.3 Vicarious Liability 5.4 Liability Through the Prism of Sustainability 6 Conclusions References Chapter 17: The Role of Slow Steaming in Shipping and Methods of CO2 Reduction 1 Introduction 2 The Slow Steaming Approach 3 Speed Reduction 3.1 Fuel Consumption Reduction Due to Speed Reduction 4 Speed Optimisation 4.1 The Economic View 4.2 The Environmental View 5 Speed Limits 6 The Commercial Point of View of Slow Steaming 7 The Supply Chain Management Point of View 7.1 The Port Perspective 7.2 The Bottleneck Effect 8 Conclusions and the Way Forward References Part IV: Good Ocean Governance Chapter 18: Maritime Governance and Small Island Developing States of the Wider Caribbean Region in the Era of Climate Change Adaptation 1 Introduction 2 The Special Case of SIDS and the WCR 3 Climate Change Adaptation, Climate Treaties and ‘Blue Economy’ for SIDS and the WCR 3.1 Climate Change Adaptation in the WCR 3.2 Climate Change Adaptation Under Climate Treaties 3.2.1 UNFCCC 3.2.2 The Paris Agreement 3.3 The Blue Economy Strategy to Fight Against Marine Pollution in the Wider Caribbean Region 4 Governance Tools and Applicable Conventions in the Context of WCR and Its SIDS 4.1 International Governance 4.1.1 IMO’s Role on Preserving the Marine Ecosystems of SIDS in the WCR 4.1.2 The Cartagena Convention and Its Protocols 4.2 Regional Governance 4.2.1 Regional Governance in the WCR to Preserve Marine Ecosystems and Fight Against Climate Change 4.2.2 Projects, Plans and Initiatives to Address Climate Change in the WCR 5 Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Related to Shipping on SIDS and the WCR 5.1 The Impact of GHG Emissions on SIDS and the WCR 5.2 IMO’s Global Efforts with Regional Effects in the Caribbean to Reduce Emissions from Shipping 5.2.1 Market-Based Measures (MBM) 5.2.2 The Roadmap to Reduce GHG Emissions Related to Shipping 5.2.3 GloMEEP and Global Maritime Network (GMN) 5.2.4 The Sulphur Cap for the Reduction of GHG Emissions 5.2.5 Conclusions 5.3 EU’s Support to Reduce GHG Emissions 6 Final Remarks References Chapter 19: Mind the Gap: Women in the Boardroom, on Board and in the Port 1 Introduction 2 Women in the Boardroom 2.1 Need for Gender Diversity in the Boardroom 3 Women Seafarers and the Way Forward 4 Women in the Port Sector 5 Conclusion References Chapter 20: Maritime Governance and International Maritime Organization Instruments Focused on Sustainability in the Light of United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 1 Introduction 2 IMO Instruments and SDGs 2.1 Maritime Safety and Security 2.1.1 Maritime Safety 2.1.2 Maritime Security 2.1.3 Links Between IMO’s Strategic Directions and the SDGs on Safety and Security 2.2 Marine Environment 2.2.1 Oil Pollution (MARPOL Annex I) 2.2.2 Chemical Pollution (MARPOL Annex II and III) 2.2.3 Sewage and Garbage (MARPOL Annex IV and V) 2.2.4 Air Pollution and GHG Emissions (MARPOL Annex VI) 2.2.5 Links Between IMO’s Strategic Directions and the SDGs on Marine Environment 2.3 Human Element 2.3.1 The Human Element as a Cause of Marine Accidents 2.3.2 IMO’s Human Element Vision 2.3.3 The STCW and the STCW Code 2.3.4 The ISM Code 2.3.5 Non-criminalisation of Seafarers in Case of Maritime Accidents The Casualty Investigation Code EU’s Role over Vessel-Sourced Pollution in Conflict with the Human Element Accusations of Criminalisation of Seafarers Against the EU 2.3.6 IMO’s Outputs in Relation to the SDGs 2.3.7 Links Between IMO’s Strategic Directions and the SDGs on the Human Element 2.4 Technical Cooperation 2.4.1 Technical Cooperation Between the IMO and Its Member States 2.4.2 IMO Outputs and Performance Indicators in Relation to the SDGs 2.4.3 Links Between IMO’s Strategic Directions (SDs) and the SDGs on Technical Cooperation 3 Regional Maritime Governance: Best Practice Action from the EU 3.1 EU Legislation on Maritime Safety 3.2 EU Legislation on Marine Environment 3.3 The EU’s Contribution to the Human Element 3.4 EU Legislation on Technical Cooperation 4 Conclusions Annex I. Relevant United Nations Instruments Annex II. International Maritime Organizations’ Instruments Annex III. Relevant European Union Secondary Legislation References Chapter 21: Putting the Pieces Together for Sustainable Shipping 1 Introduction 2 Marine Shipping, the Global Economy and People 2.1 Transoceanic Shipping Links the World 2.2 The Past 2.3 The Present 2.4 The Future 3 Domestic and Short Sea Shipping 3.1 Serving Domestic Trade Around the World 3.2 Small Island States and Remote Regions 4 Reducing GHGs 4.1 Keeping Global Warming to 1.5 °C from Pre-industrial Levels 4.2 Shipping’s Contribution Is Small Yet Large 4.3 IMO Measures So Far 4.4 IMO’s Goal of 50% Reduction by 2050 4.5 The Challenge of a Growing Economy and Need for Decarbonisation 4.6 Costs of GHG Reduction Measures 5 What Shipping Needs to Do 6 What New Technology Needs to Do 6.1 Scale 6.2 Supply 6.3 Robust Design 6.4 Infrastructure 6.5 Lifecycle Emission Performance 6.6 Downside Risks 6.7 Cost 6.8 A Short List of Zero-Carbon Technologies So Far 7 What Regulators Need to Do 8 Conclusions References Chapter 22: Conclusions: Connecting Sustainable Development Goals to the Maritime Domain 1 Context for the Conclusions 2 The SDGs and Targets as They Apply to the Maritime Domain 2.1 SDG1: End Poverty in All Its Forms Everywhere 2.2 End Hunger, Achieve Food Security and Improve Nutrition and Promote Sustainable Agriculture 2.3 SDG3: Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being for All Ages 2.4 SDG4: Ensure Inclusive and Quality Education for All and Promote Life-Long Learning 2.5 SDG5: Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls 2.6 SDG6: Ensure Access to (Clean) Water and Sanitation for All 2.7 SDG7: Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable and Modern Energy for All 2.8 SDG8: Promote Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work for All 2.9 SDG9: Build Resilient Infrastructure, Promote Sustainable Industrialization and Foster Innovation 2.10 SDG10: Reduce Inequality Within and Among Countries 2.11 SDG11: Make Cities Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable 2.12 SDG12: Ensure Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns 2.13 SDG13: Take Urgent Action to Combat Climate Change and Its Impacts 2.14 SDG14: Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources 2.15 SDG15: Sustainably Manage Forests, Combat Desertification, Halt and Reverse Land Degradation, Halt Biodiversity Loss 2.16 SDG16: Promote Just, Peaceful and Inclusive Societies 2.17 SDG17: Revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development 3 Chapter Summary References Index