مهندسی نقشه‌برداری و ژئوماتیک: اصول، فناوری‌ها و کاربردها (راهنماها و گزارش‌های مربوط به عملیات مهندسی ۱۵۲) (راهنما و گزارش‌های ASCE در مورد عملیات مهندسی، ۱۵۲)

Book_5176_C000 Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Book_5176_C001 Chapter 1: Engineering Surveying within ASCE Introduction Geomatics and Geospatial Engineering Surveying Engineer Today Professional Licensing and Certification Chapter Topics References Book_5176_C002 Chapter 2: Geodesy and Geodetic Computations Introduction Brief History of Geodesy Geometrical Elements of Geodesy Geodetic Coordinate Systems Models Used in Geometrical Geodesy Geodetic Forward and Inverse Computations Physical Geodesy Datums Horizontal Datums Vertical Datums New Datums—The Modernized National Spatial Reference System References Book_5176_C003 Chapter 3: Map Projections and Local Coordinate Systems Introduction Map Projections Map Projections Appropriate for Surveying and Engineering Defining Parameters of Projected Coordinate Systems Map Projection Distortion Angular Distortion. For conformal projections, angular distortion at a point is the convergence (mapping) angle, γ. The convergence angle is the difference between grid (map) north and geodetic (“true”) north, as shown in Figure 3-4. On the Linear Distortion. Map projection linear distortion is manifested as a difference in distance between a pair of projected (map grid) coordinates and the true horizontal distance at the surface of the Earth. Although differences in finite distances ar Projected Coordinate Systems State Plane Coordinate System Existing and Historic Versions of the State Plane Coordinate System. Large-scale conformal projected coordinate systems for surveying engineering became common in the United States after the creation of the SPCS in the 1930s by NGS (then the US Coast State Plane Coordinate System of 2022. As part of modernizing the NSRS, NGS will replace NAD 83 with four new terrestrial reference frames (TRFs) in the near future, probably between 2025 and 2027. Because the original intent was to adopt them in 202 Universal Grids: Universal Transverse Mercator and Universal Polar Stereographic Coordinate Systems The “Grid versus Ground” Problem Methods for Reducing Map Projection Distortion Scale an Existing Map Projection to the Topographic Surface. Soon after creation of the SPCS, surveyors and engineers began applying a scale factor to SPCS coordinates to bring “grid to ground,” so that the projected distances were (nearly) equal to t Modify the Reference Ellipsoid to Place Its Surface near the Topographic Surface. Once personal computers became readily available, creating and using custom coordinate system definitions became practical. One such custom approach for minimizing line Define a Projection Developable Surface near the Topographic Surface. Rather than modifying the reference ellipsoid and then defining a tangent (or near tangent) projection, the projection developable surface can instead be placed near the topographi Low-Distortion Projection Coordinate Systems Understanding Linear Distortion Behavior. What exactly happens when a PCS is developed that is intended to reduce linear distortion? To help answer this question a hypothetical situation is presented, which will be followed with an example of a simila Low-Distortion Projection Performance Example. An example of actual LDP performance like that shown schematically in Figure 3-16(c) is provided for the Bend–Redmond–Prineville zone of the Oregon Coordinate Reference System (OCRS), a statewide syste Selecting Final Design Parameters for Low-Distortion Projections. When designing LDPs (or any projections), it is good practice to use simple and “clean” values for the defining parameters. This is consistent with how SPCS and UTM are defined. The on Low-Distortion Projected Coordinate Systems Adopted in the United States. Many low-distortion PCSs have been created and are in use throughout the United States, and they are too many to list here. Most of these are single-zone LDP systems intended f Nonprojected Local Coordinate Systems Local Geodetic Horizon Systems Nongeoreferenced Local Coordinate Systems Summary References Book_5176_C004 Chapter 4: Local, Regional, and Global Coordinate Transformations Introduction Equation-Based Transformations Local Horizontal and Vertical Transformations Horizontal and 3D Transformations. A mathematical operation often performed by surveying engineers is the transformation of horizontal coordinates, often done so that one set of coordinates can be made to match another set. Most surveying engineering Vertical Transformations. Vertical transformations are probably the most common type of transformation used for surveying data. Such transformations can range from a simple single vertical shift to “inclined plane” corrections as well as to complex g On the Use of “Calibrations/Localizations” for GNSS-Derived Local Coordinates. GNSS positioning is based on a global (geodetic) coordinate system. Once the geocentric X, Y, Z coordinates have been determined, the GNSS part of the process is don Horizontal Calibration/Localization Vertical Calibration/Localization Summary Discussion on Calibration/Localization Global Equation–Based Coordinate Transformations Helmert Transformations. The transformations in this section are based on equations applied to global coordinate systems, even when they are only intended for specific regions. Often they go by the name datum, reference frame, or geographic coord Transformations among Commonly Used Reference Frames. Helmert transformations are often used to convert geodetic coordinates among reference frames. Commercial geospatial software can contain hundreds of parameter sets for different versions and comb International Terrestrial Reference System World Geodetic System of 1984 Three Frames of the North American Datum of 1983 Helmert Transformation Limitations and Other Equation-Based Methods. Although Helmert transformations are commonly used, it is important to realize that a transformation using only 14 Helmert parameters will, in general, not give correct results i Grid-Based Coordinate Transformations NADCON (Geometric Coordinate Transformations) Evolution of 2D NADCON (Versions 1.0 through 4.2). NADCON and its transformation grids have evolved significantly since its initial release in 1990 as version 1.0 (Dewhurst 1990). This and other early purely 2D versions of NADCON (through 4.2) have Creation of 3D Transformation Grids (GEOCON). After the HARN surveys, additional regional GPS surveys were performed, which are collectively called Federal Base Networks (FBNs), again on a largely state-by-state basis. However, no consistent naming c Combining all Transformation Grids: NADCON 5.0. In 2016, all the transformations supported by NADCON and GEOCON were combined into a single product called NADCON 5.0. This was a comprehensive rebuild and replacement with three main objectives: (1) to VERTCON (Vertical Transformations). VERTCON performs vertical transformations between the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) and the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). Grid coverage is only available for CONUS (none in Ala National Geodetic Survey Hybrid and Gravimetric Geoid Models (Vertical Transformations) VDatum (Vertical Transformations) Combined Equation- and Grid-Based Transformations Summary References Book_5176_C005 Chapter 5: Analysis and Adjustment of Observational Errors Introduction Types of Errors Population versus Sample Least-Squares Adjustments Error Propagation Weights Preparing Data for an Adjustment Postadjustment Statistics Postadjustment Blunder Detection Statistical Methods of Determining Map Accuracy Conclusions References Book_5176_C006 Chapter 6: Satellite-Based Surveying Technology Brief Overview of Global Positioning System Global Positioning System Segments Space Segment Control Segment User Segment Global Positioning System Signals Codes Wavelength and Frequency NAV Messages Pseudorandom Noise Codes P(Y) Code C/A Code Error Sources Ionospheric Effect (dion) Satellite Clock Bias (dt) Receiver Clock Bias (dT) Orbital Bias (dρ) Tropospheric Effect (dtrop) Multipath Receiver Noise Differential Global Positioning System versus Relative Positioning Solutions Single Point Relative Positioning Postprocessing Correlation of Biases Global Positioning System Survey Planning Independent Lines Station Data Sheet Observation Logs Global Navigation Satellite System Surveying Techniques Static Real-Time Kinematic Real-Time Networks Precise Point Positioning Global Positioning System Modernization and Global Navigation Satellite System GPS Satellite Blocks L2C. Two new codes will be broadcast on the carrier, L2, which previously carried only one military signal exclusively, the P(Y) code. Now, L2 will carry a new military signal, the M-code, and a new civil signal as well. This is a code that was first L5. L5 is the new carrier being broadcast on the Block IIF satellites. It is centered on 1,176.45 MHz. The basic structure of L5 looks similar to that of L1. Two PRN codes are present on this carrier. Both L5 codes have a 10.23 MHz chipping rate. Thi L1C. Another civil signal will be broadcast by the Block III satellites. It is known as L1C. As a result of an agreement between the United States and the European Union (EU) reached in June 2004, this signal will be broadcast by both GPS and Galil Global Navigation Satellite Systems Globalnaya Navigationnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema. Russia’s Globalnaya Navigationnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System), known as GLONASS, did not reach full operational status before the collapse of the Soviet Union. Galileo. At the time of this writing, the European Union’s civilian-controlled Galileo system is expected to reach full operational status in 2022. The satellites are on orbit at a nominal height of about 23,222 km above the Earth. The full constel BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS). A fourth GNSS system, joining those undertaken by the United States (GPS), Russia (GLONASS), and Europe (Galileo) is the Chinese BeiDou Naviation Satellite System. The system is named after the Big Dipper. Th Quazi-Zenith Satellite System. The first demonstration satellite of the Japanese, Quazi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), named QZS-1, was launched in 2010 by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) from the Tanegashima Space Center. It is expec Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System. The building of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (NAVIC aka IRNSS) was authorized by the Indian government in 2006. It provides position, navigation, and timing service in a region from 30°S Future References Book_5176_C007 Chapter 7: Leveling and Total Stations Introduction to Levels and Leveling Leveling Instruments and Equipment Levels Tripods Leveling Rods Leveling Rod Bubbles Core Leveling Procedures Setting up the Level Reading the Rod Two-Peg Test Base Leveling General Leveling Recording Methods Height of Collimation Method. This is the method that is widely known and used in the United States. As the elevation is carried through the entire method, the elevation of the starting bench mark should be known before leveling begins. The method foc Rise and Fall Method. This is the standard international method for recording and reducing leveling observations. It has the advantage of better checking and reduction capabilities, as well as not requiring the final elevations to be known to complet Grid Leveling. This recording method is used for topographic surveys. A grid sheet is drawn up at a suitable scale for each setup, and the side shots are recorded on the grid sheet at their appropriate 2D location, as shown in Figure 7-16. The back Basic Leveling Processes Point Leveling. When the elevations of widely separated points are required, point leveling is used. This usually takes the form of base leveling. New or unknown points are connected to points with known elevations by flights of levels that are run tw Line Leveling. Much leveling is undertaken for support of construction work, and the points whose elevation is determined tend to fall along well-defined lines. Longitudinal sections and cross sections covering a largely linear construction project, Area Leveling. This is used for topographic surveying, where a region is covered with points, commonly on a regular grid. Various techniques may be used to help with the 2D location of the measured points, such as the grid leveling recording method p Errors in Leveling Orthometric and Dynamic Corrections Adjustment Introduction to Total Stations Design of Modern Total Stations Total Station Equipment Tripods Data Collectors Prisms Orientation Total Station Extensions Reflectorless Robotic Imaging Targeting Scanning Global Navigation Satellite System Connection Programmable Setting Up the Total Station Tripod Instrument Optical Plummet Laser Plummet Final Leveling Heights Zeroing Instrument Basic Total Station Procedures Measuring Horizontal Angles Reducing Horizontal Angles Measuring Vertical Angles Reducing Vertical Angles Deflection of the Vertical Measuring Distances Reducing Distances Refraction and Curvature Point Codes Electronic Distance Measurement Calibration Total Station Processes Traversing Networks Topographic Surveys Layout Work References Book_5176_C008 Chapter 8: Terrestrial Laser Scanning Introduction Overview Key References Applications in Civil Engineering System Types Data Structure and Scan Patterns Data Quality Considerations Differences to Airborne and Mobile lidar TLS Workflows Planning and Preliminary Site Surveys Field Procedures Leveling/Inclination Sensors Field Notes Data Backup Strategies Care of Equipment Registration Strategies Calibration Procedures Transformation Points versus Validation Points Rigid-Body Coordinate Transformations Translation. Translation is straightforward to pull out of the matrix: Rotations. The rotations can be found with a little math to simplify some of these elements: Coordinate Systems Direct Georeferencing Target-Based Registration Reflective Targets. Reflective targets can be discs, cylinders, spheres, or other shapes. Pesci and Teza (2008) provide a rigorous assessment of reflective targets and artifacts for TLS. The advantage to reflective targets is that, given their stron Pattern Targets. Pattern targets can either be existing, well-defined objects in the scene (e.g., pavement markings) or placed. Some scan manufacturers provide templates of targets that can be printed and placed throughout the scene. (Note that a hig Target Registration Process. Regardless of the types of targets, common targets between scans are matched together, and then a scan is matched to the coordinate system of another scan or the project coordinate system in the registration. In software, Cloud-to-Cloud Surface Matching Limitations of Cloud-to-Cloud Surface Matching. A key limitation of point-to-point correspondence is that there is no guarantee that points in the first scan represent the same objects and point in space as the corresponding points in Scan B. To help Mixed Approaches Comparison Registration Quality Control Uncertainty Analysis. A current limitation in TLS is that formal uncertainties per point are often not available. Recent research has focused on developing theoretical uncertainty models for TLS. These uncertainties are useful for improved point selec Quantitative Error Reporting from Registration Results. Most TLS software will report the errors calculated during the registration for the TCTs. It is important to holistically evaluate these errors and report them at a confidence interval (typicall Validation Control Points. Given the limitations of registration errors, VCTs can help provide a more realistic estimate of error in the dataset. (See Registration Strategies for a discussion on TCTs versus VCTs.) This section provides some examples Visual Verification. Visual checks and verifications should always be performed in addition to the quantitative approaches even when the results are satisfactory. Although large misalignments are, in general, easy to spot when visually inspecting the Point Density Evaluations. Similar to accuracy, point density should be evaluated throughout the dataset, particularly for objects of interest. Selecting appropriate resolutions for scanning is critical. The USIBD Level of Detail specification provid Data Completeness. Another consideration for quality control is the frequency of data gaps in the scan survey. Although most of the data may meet resolution requirements, there will be many cases where there will be data gaps (i.e., shadows, occlusio Processing Workflows Filtering Density Filters Topographic Mapping and Digital Terrain Modeling Ground Filtering. Ground filtering is a common task for creating DTMs with lidar datasets. Although, in general, automated ground and other surface extraction algorithms work well for airborne lidar data, these can be problematic to implement on TLS d Ultra-High-Resolution Modeling. Highly detailed surface models may be desired for applications such as change analysis (discussed later). In these cases, the data can be gridded or triangulated for the analysis depending on the orientation of the obj Geometric Modeling Feature Extraction Segmentation and Classification Procedures. Point-cloud segmentation and classification research is rapidly progressing for a wide variety of applications. This section presents an overview of existing work on the segmentation and classification of po Examples of Transportation Feature Extractions. Algorithms and software to extract transportation-related objects from point-cloud datasets using many of the aforementioned techniques are evolving rapidly. Belton and Bae (2010) present approaches f Point Cloud to Finite-Element Models. Conversion of lidar point-cloud data into solid models, necessary for engineering analysis can be a tedious, manual process. However, recent research has provided some promising solutions. Tang et al. (2010) pr Processing Quality Control Analyses Visualization Analysis Change Analysis Clash Detection Reverse Engineering Intensity Analyses Visibility Analyses Structural Analyses Best Practices Future Changes Acknowledgments References Book_5176_C009 Chapter 9: Mobile Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Mapping Introduction Key References System Components Applications Project Workflow Planning Preliminary Site Surveys Data Acquisition Georeferencing Geometric Corrections. The quality of the direct georeferencing solution (i.e., the blended navigation solution from the post-processed GNSS-aided IMU data) can vary considerably, as a function of a number of variables, which include the following: in Error Sources in Georeferencing. Given that MTLS integrates data from multiple sensors, and a wide range of systems are available that utilize diverse components, it is important to understand the contribution of each error source to the overall erro Quality Control. Quality control should be planned and implemented in each stage of the mobile lidar workflow. Before the survey, the system calibration needs to be verified. During data acquisition, the data collection mission needs to be monitored, Post-Processing Computations/Analysis Packaging/Delivery Indoor Mobile Mapping Technology Sensors for Indoor Mapping SLAM Algorithms Indoor Mobile Mapping Systems Looking Forward Acknowledgments References Book_5176_C010 Chapter 10: Aerial Surveying Technology Aerial Photogrammetry Introduction Cameras Camera Distortion and Calibration Basic Principles of Aerial Photogrammetry Analytical Photogrammetry Stereoplotters Digital Elevation Models Orthophotos Project Planning Aerial Laser Scanning Introduction Fundamental Principles Determination of Position and Orientation Properties of Aerial Laser Scanners Topographic and Bathymetric Aerial Laser Scanners Ranging Modalities Beam Divergence Laser Scanner Characteristics Operational Aspects of Airborne Laser Scanning Project Planning and Execution Calibration Quality Control and Accuracy Reporting Data Processing Data Products Point Cloud. The raw output generated from a processed ALS survey is a densely sampled set of x, y, z measurements of the underlying reflecting surface called a 3D point cloud (Figure 10-11). Point cloud data provide a three-dimensional repres Filtering and Terrain Modeling. After reducing and editing the observations, the next major step in ALS data processing is point cloud filtering. The most common goal of filtering ALS observations is to identify and remove points associated with vege Intensity. In addition to recording ranges and generating point clouds, airborne lidar systems usually record the return signal strength of the pulse echo (e.g., 8 bit or 12 bit values). As discussed in Chapter 8, these amplitude measurements are com Aerial Laser Scanning Performance Error Budget Advantages and Limitations of Aerial Laser Scanning Unmanned Aircraft Systems Introduction Platforms and Sensors Aerial Mapping with Unmanned Aircraft Systems Mission Planning Flight Design Ground Sample Distance and Overlap. For conducting aerial photogrammetry missions with small UASs, the two main parameters that govern flight design are GSD and image overlap. GSD is the projected pixel area on the ground and is a function of the came Rolling and Global Shutter Cameras. Another factor to consider when designing UAS mapping missions is the type of camera used. Rolling shutter cameras read the image line by line or in groups. Camera movement or object movement during this reading ti Ground Control Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry Unmanned Aircraft Systems-Structure-from-Motion Accuracy Regulations References Book_5176_C011 Chapter 11: Survey Control Introduction Horizontal, Vertical, or Both Local Control Geodetic Control Active Control: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) Network Active Control: Real-Time Network Passive Control Project Planning and Control Setting New Control Common Tools for Control Surveying Geodetic Leveling Specifications GNSS Control Surveying Guidelines: NOS NGS-58 and 59 Online Positioning User Service-Static Online Positioning User Service-Rapid Static Online Positioning User Service-Projects Other Online Tools for Global Navigation Satellite System Processing Adjustments and Evaluating Control References Book_5176_C012 Chapter 12: Construction Surveys Introduction Before Construction During Construction After Construction Horizontal and Vertical Control Horizontal Control Vertical Control Construction Survey Task Sequence Construction Survey Equipment Field Notes Construction Staking and Layout Construction Staking Equipment Construction Stakes Reference Stakes Slope Stakes Grade Stakes Site Layout Stakes Structure Stakes Right-of-Way Markers and Property Boundary Monuments Earthwork Computations As-Built Surveys Machine Guidance and Control References Book_5176_C013 Chapter 13: Survey Records Introduction Typical Survey Records Company Standards as Survey Records Construction Documents as Survey Records Numeric Survey Records Data Source. All control networks (see Chapter 11) are based on a reference frame and vertical datum. These define the basic mathematical and geometric relationship between the survey measurements made and the surface of the Earth. Survey records must Raw Field Data. The extent to which raw field data—actual satellite positioning data, total station measurements, and scanner output—are retained as part of the survey records may be a matter of company policy or may be defined by a contract. Being i Adjusted Data. Data adjustment is an attempt to rationally distribute corrections among field observations (see Chapter 5). This can be done with software employing different adjustment rules and weighting schemes. The network will likely be constrai Project Computations. Every project requires at least some computation based on the design drawings and the control system. The computations involve everything from basic coordinate geometry for staking to complex three-dimensional models needed for m Graphic Survey Records Field Notes. Despite the availability of electronic data collection, manually kept field notes are often an effective supplement to the electronic record. For example, ties to survey stations, the proximity of a station to adjacent buildings, fences, Maps and Drawings. Engineering surveys proceed from the maps and design drawings as referenced in the construction agreement or work order. It is frequently necessary for the surveying engineer to prepare additional maps to document work during const Project Monumentation Control Diagram Mark Descriptions Report of Survey Summary References Book_5176_C014 Chapter 14: Information Systems in Civil Engineering Introduction Geographic Information Systems Building Information Modeling Coordinate Systems in Geographic Information Systems/Building Information Models Geographic Information Systems/Building Information Modeling Technologies Computing Hardware and Software From Point Clouds to Models Immersive Visualization Technologies Key Data Models Key Data Types for Geographic Information Systems Key Data Types for Building Information Modeling Database Databases in Geographic Information Systems ID Fields Joining and Relating Tables Query Languages Fields and Data Types Common Spatial Operators and Geoprocessing Tools Vector Operators Topology Raster Operators Automated Feature Identification in Imagery Interpolation Techniques Topographic Operations Example Geographic Information Systems Applications and Analyses Example Building Information Modeling Applications Building Information Modeling for Infrastructure Projects Building Information Modeling and Light Detection and Ranging for Project Progress Monitoring Scan-to-Building Information Modeling: Converting Point Clouds into Building Information Models References Book_5176_C015 Chapter 15: Professional Services and Design Professionals’ Agreements Introduction Contracts 101—The Basic Legal Principles Offer Acceptance Consideration Consent Capacity Legality Writing Key Provisions for Design Professionals’ Contracts Certifications, Guarantees, and Warranties Incorporation by Reference of Another Contract or Document A Design Professional’s Indemnity Obligation Must Be Negligence Based Standard of Care in Negligence Indemnity—Duty to Defend Indemnity—Limit Indemnitees Liability to Owners Based on Claims by Third Parties Indemnity—Joint and Several Liability Indemnity—Limits on Liability to Policy Limits Ownership and Use of Design Professional’s Work Including Copyright Include a Hold Harmless Clause in the Design Professional’s Contract Scope of Work Other Important Areas to Cover in a Design Professional’s Agreement Examples of Design Professionals’ Agreements Design Professional’s Employment Agreement Chapter 15: Appendix References Book_5176_IDX