Surface Well Testing : A Practical Guide

With easy oil extraction becoming a thing of the past, new technologies and processes of discovery have been introduced into the exploration of oil and gas. These advancements rely on precise and accurate data, in many cases live during operations. Surface well testing operations acquire the necessary data during exploration, production, and development, and clean data is essential and heavily relied upon. Surface Well Testing: A Practical Guide guides readers on the fundamentals and techniques of surface well testing operations and data acquisition to ensure proper operational procedures and standards. Explains actual operations, equipment, and data acquisition and quality Introduces readers to the processes and techniques of surface well testing, the required measurements and readings, and how to get the right data to perform accurate reservoir and petroleum engineering calculations Bridges the gap between practical field operations and simulated engineering and mathematical models This book supports readers and organisations in the oil and gas industry as an operations reference and training manual to ensure standardisation of operating procedures and accuracy of results. Cover Half Title Title Copyright Dedication Contents Authors List of Figures Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Why This Book Chapter 2 Well Testing Preparations 2.1 Operations 2.2 TWOP (Test the Well on Paper) 2.2.1 TWOP Attendees 2.2.2 Pre-Test Data 2.2.3 Test Types 2.3 Rigging Up 2.4 Well Test and Other Personnel 2.5 Experience 2.6 Language Chapter 3 Time 3.1 Standard Time 3.2 Watches 3.3 Events 3.3.1 Production Monitoring Tests and Time 3.3.2 Memory Gauges and Time 3.3.3 Slickline, Electroline (E-Line), and Coiled Tubing Operations 3.3.4 Time/Event Conclusion 3.3.5 Prior to Starting the Job 3.4 Manual Readings Sheets 3.4.1 Fluid Data 3.4.2 Operator Company Personnel 3.4.3 Data Acquisition Chapter 4 Safety 4.1 Basic Electrical Safety 4.1.1 Mobile Phones 4.2 Zoning 4.2.1 Zone 0 4.2.2 Zone 1 4.2.3 Zone 2 4.2.4 Safe Area or Clean Zone 4.3 Installation 4.3.1 Pipework Identification 4.4 Pre-Job Arrangements 4.4.1 Routine Maintenance 4.4.2 Crew Safety 4.4.3 Crew Safety Meetings 4.4.4 PPE 4.4.5 Stop Work Authority 4.4.6 Pressure Testing Chapter 5 Well Test Equipment 5.1 Operating the Equipment 5.2 Earthing 5.3 Tie Down 5.4 Equipment Layout 5.5 Flow Line Rig Up 5.6 Hydrates 5.6.1 Hydrate Prevention by Chemical Injection 5.7 Data Header 5.8 The Choke Manifold 5.8.1 Basic Gate Valves 5.8.2 Trapped Pressure 5.8.3 Chokes 5.9 Emergency Shut Down (Surface Shut-In Valve – SSV) 5.9.1 Surface Safety Valve (SSV) 5.10 Deadweight Tester (DWT) 5.11 Three-Phase Separator 5.11.1 Well Testing Fluid Manifold 5.11.2 Transfer Pump 5.12 Tanks 5.13 Well Test Burners 5.14 Air Compressors 5.15 High Pressure and 10 kpsi 5.15.1 Techlok Clamp 5.15.2 Flanges and Gaskets 5.15.3 Armoured Hoses 5.15.4 Hammer Unions 5.15.5 Hammer Union Elastomer Seals 5.15.6 Hammer Union Lugs 5.15.7 Non-Sparking Hammers 5.15.8 Crossovers 5.15.9 Data on Pipework Test Ring 5.15.10 NPT-Type Fittings 5.16 Burners 5.16.1 Radiant Heat 5.16.2 Burner Requirements 5.16.3 Burner Function 5.16.4 Burner Pilots 5.16.5 Positioning of the Burner 5.16.6 Supplied Water to the Burner 5.16.7 Burner Air Supplies 5.16.8 Burning Gas 5.16.9 Offshore Burner 5.16.10 Onshore Burner 5.16.11 Mounting the Burner at Flare Pit 5.16.12 Offshore Burners Operation 5.16.13 Burner Personnel 5.16.14 Burner Flowchart 5.16.15 Mud and Heavy Oil Burners 5.16.16 Monitoring Burner Performance 5.16.17 Smoke Measurement 5.16.18 Macrae Flare Smoke Evaluator Chapter 6 Well Test Separators 6.1 What Is a Separator? 6.2 Pre-Job 6.3 Well Testing Separator Basic Rules 6.3.1 Choke Changes 6.3.2 Clean Up 6.3.3 Inlet Pressure 6.3.4 Pressure Relief Lines 6.3.5 Surging Pressures 6.3.6 High Basic Sediments and Water (BS&W) 6.3.7 Acid 6.4 Phases Operation 6.4.1 Two-Phase 6.4.2 Three-Phase 6.5 Well Test Separator Components 6.5.1 Separator Manifold 6.5.2 Non-Return Valve 6.5.3 Well Test Separator Internals 6.5.4 Separator Liquid Levels 6.5.5 Liquid Level Controllers 6.5.6 Vortex Breakers 6.5.7 Wave Breakers and Surge Plates 6.5.8 Separator Gas Line 6.5.9 Separator Instrument Air 6.5.10 Separator Metering 6.6 Well Test Manual Readings Chapter 7 Hazards 7.1 Hazardous Gas Well Testing 7.1.1 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) 7.1.2 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 7.1.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 7.2 Corrosion 7.2.1 H2S 7.2.2 CO2 7.2.3 H2S and CO2 7.2.4 Water (H2O) 7.2.5 Monitoring 7.3 Erosion 7.3.1 Thermowells 7.3.2 Particle Detection 7.3.3 Wall Thickness Measurement 7.3.4 Sand Filtering 7.3.5 Increasing Choke Size with Sand Chapter 8 Basic Sediment and Water (BS&W) 8.1 BS&W Definitions and Standards 8.2 Use of BS&W 8.3 BS&W Sampling Point 8.3.1 Basic Operational Issues of BS&W Sampling 8.4 BS&W Process Considerations 8.5 Large Quantities of Water in Oil Line 8.6 Major Factors Affecting BS&W 8.6.1 Timing 8.6.2 BS&W Location 8.7 Correction of Flow Using BS&W 8.7.1 Two-Phase Water Flow Calculation Using BS&W 8.7.2. Three-Phase Water Calculation from BS&W 8.8 BS&W Sampling 8.8.1 BS&W Equipment Required 8.8.2 BS&W Safety 8.8.3 BS&W Sampling Procedures 8.8.4 BS&W Different Types of Water Content 8.8.5 Initial BS&W Samples 8.9 BS&W Sample Records 8.9.1 Common Practice of BS&W Sampling 8.10 BS&W Centrifuging 8.11 BS&W Improvement Methods 8.11.1 Fluids Used for BS&W Cutting 8.11.2 BS&W Demulsifier Method 8.11.3 BS&W Heating 8.12 BS&W Correction Equation 8.13 Comparison of BS&W Samples 8.13.1 BS&W Samples Averaging 8.13.2 BS&W Readings Using Cutting 8.13.3 BS&W High Percentage Water Content 8.13.4 Injected Chemical Effects on BS&W 8.13.5 Cleaning 8.14 Electronic Measurement of BS&W 8.14.1 Issues of Electronic Measurements Chapter 9 Liquid Gravity Measurements 9.1 Major Factors Affecting Gravity Measurements 9.1.1 Timing 9.1.2 Sample Cooling 9.1.3 Surface Sampling 9.1.4 Measuring Cylinders 9.2 Oil Water Segregation 9.2.1 Confirming BS&W from Measuring Cylinder 9.2.2 Adequate Oil Volume 9.3 Oil Gravity Validity 9.3.1 Hydrometer Functionality 9.3.2 Inserting the Hydrometer 9.3.3 Hydrometer Temperature Errors 9.3.4 Gaseous Sample 9.3.5 Hydrometer in Water 9.3.6 Reading the Hydrometer 9.3.7 High Water Content Samples 9.4 Digital Specific Gravity Instruments 9.4.1 Technological SG Advancements 9.5 Water Measurements 9.5.1 Water Specific Gravity 9.5.2 Water Salinity 9.5.3 pH Measurement Chapter 10 Gas Measurements 10.1 ASTM Standard for Gas Gravity 10.2 Gas Specific Gravity 10.2.1 Gas Sampling 10.3 Gas Gravity Measurement 10.3.1 RanarexTM Gas Gravitometer 10.3.2 Gas Gravities Using a Chromatograph 10.4 Gas Contaminants 10.4.1 Gas Detection Tubes – Basic Principle of Operation 10.4.2 Reaction Tube Operation 10.4.3 Using the Reaction Tubes on a Separator 10.4.4 Taking a Gas Sample for Reaction Tube Procedure 10.4.5 Reading the Reaction Tubes 10.4.6 Gas Sampling Pressure 10.4.7 Gas Contaminant Reading at Choke Manifold 10.4.8 Extending the Reaction Tube Range Chapter 11 Flow Data 11.1 Clean-Up Period 11.2 Separator Flow Regimes 11.3 Liquid Flow Measurement 11.3.1 Flow Meter Ranges 11.3.2 Metering Timing Errors 11.3.3 Meter Flow Rate Errors 11.3.4 GOR2 11.3.5 Shrinkage 11.3.6 Fluid Flow Meters 11.3.7 Basic Oil Flow Equation 11.3.8 Oil Calculation with a Three-Phase Separator 11.3.9 Water Calculation with a Three-Phase Separator 11.3.10 Oil Calculation with a Two-Phase Separator 11.3.11 Water Calculation with a Two-Phase Separator 11.4 Gas Flow Measurements 11.4.1 Gas Metering by Orifice Variables 11.4.2 Gas Calculation by Orifice Plate 11.5 New Technology Flow Meters 11.5.1 Coriolis Meters 11.5.2 Multi-Phase Flow Meters (MPFM) 11.5.3 Water Cut Meters Chapter 12 Data Instrumentation 12.1 Defining Pressure 12.2 Calibrations 12.2.1 Calibration Issues 12.2.2 Field Calibration 12.2.3 Deadweight Tester 12.2.4 Transducer A/D Response 12.3 Wireless Transducers 12.3.1 Transducer Security 12.3.2 Data Transfer Rate 12.3.3 Transducer Accuracy and Repeatability 12.3.4 Batteries 12.3.5 Wireless Networks 12.3.6 Wireless Frequency and Power 12.4 Mounting of Transducers 12.5 Electrical Safety 12.5.1 Solar Power 12.6 Maintenance and Care 12.7 Main Data Sources 12.8 Downhole Surveys 12.9 Transmitted Data 12.9.1 Cabled Transmission 12.9.2 Wireless Transmission 12.9.3 Data Transfer 12.10 Real-Time Transmission 12.10.1 Internet Connection 12.10.2 Satellite Real-Time Transmission Chapter 13 Reporting, Data, and Security 13.1 Manual Data and Events 13.1.1 Example of Shut-In Response 13.2 Date and Time Format 13.3 On-Site Well Test Report 13.4 Final Well Test Report 13.4.1 Flow Rates and Averaging 13.4.2 Sensors and Data Acquisition 13.4.3 Graphic Plots or Charts 13.4.4 Sequence of Events 13.4.5 Syntax 13.4.6 Surface Sampling (Non-PVT) 13.4.7 Supplied Data 13.4.8 Names 13.4.9 Nomenclature 13.4.10 Report Appearance 13.4.11 Report Conclusions 13.5 Virus and Malware 13.5.1 Digital Security Glossary of Well Testing Terms Index Advances in artificial intelligence (AI), widespread mobile devices, internet technologies, multimedia data sources, and information processing have led to the emergence of multimedia processing. Multimedia processing is the application of signal processing tools to multimedia data—text, audio, images, and video—to allow the interpretation of these data, particularly in urban and smart city environments. This book discusses the new standards of multimedia and information processing from several technological perspectives, including analytics empowered by AI, streaming on the intelligent edge, multimedia edge caching and AI, services for edge AI, and hardware and devices for multimedia on edge intelligence.FEATURES Covers a wide spectrum of enabling technologies for AI and machine learning for multimedia and information processing Includes many applications using AI, from robotics and driverless cars to environmental, human health, and remote sensing Presents an overview of the fundamentals of AI and multimedia processing: imaging, signal, and speech Explains new models and architectures for multimedia streaming, services, and caching for AI Discusses the emerging paradigms of the deployment of hardware and devices for multimedia on edge intelligence Gives recommendations for future research in multimedia and AI This book is written for engineers and graduate students in image and signal processing, information processing, environmental engineering, medical and public health, etc., who are interested in machine learning, deep learning, and multimedia processing. With easy oil extraction becoming a thing of the past, new technologies and processes of discovery have been introduced into the exploration of oil and gas. These advancements rely on precise and accurate data, in many cases live during operations. Surface well testing operations acquire the necessary data during exploration, production, and development, and clean data is essential and heavily relied upon. Surface Well A Practical Guide instructs readers on the fundamentals and techniques of surface well testing operations and data acquisition to ensure proper operational procedures and standards. This book supports readers and organisations in the oil and gas industry as an operations reference and training manual to ensure standardisation of operating procedures and accuracy of results.