Submerged Landscapes of the European Continental Shelf, Volume I : Quaternary Paleoenvironments

Quaternary Paleoenvironments examines the drowned landscapes exposed as extensive and attractive territory for prehistoric human settlement during the Ice Ages of the Pleistocene, when sea levels dropped to 120m-135m below their current levels. This volume provides an overview of the geological, geomorphological, climatic and sea-level history of the European continental shelf as a whole, as well as a series of detailed regional reviews for each of the major sea basins. The nature and variable attractions of the landscapes and resources available for human exploitation are examined, as are the conditions under which archaeological sites and landscape features are likely to have been preserved, destroyed or buried by sediment during sea-level rise. The authors also discuss the extent to which we can predict where to look for drowned landscapes with the greatest chance of success, with frequent reference to examples of preserved prehistoric sites in different submerged environments. Quaternary Paleoenvironments will be of interest to archaeologists, geologists, marine scientists, palaeoanthropologists, cultural heritage managers, geographers, and all those with an interest in the drowned landscapes of the continental shelf. Submerged Landscapes of the European Continental Shelf 3 Contents 7 Contributors 9 Foreword 13 Preface 17 Reference 18 Acknowledgement 19 1 Introduction: Prehistoric Remains on the Continental Shelf — Why do Sites and Landscapes Survive Inundation? 21 The Big Question 21 General Issues 22 Recent History of Collaboration 24 Outline of this Book 24 Conventions and Standards 26 Conclusion 28 References 29 2 Sea Level and Climate 31 Introduction 31 Tectonic and Geological Setting of Europe with Special Reference to the Shelf and Marginal Seas 33 Proto-Europe 33 Paleo-Europe 34 Meso-Europe 35 Neo-Europe 36 Quaternary Climate and Sea-level Change 36 The Quaternary and European Sedimentary Environments 40 Glacio-isostatic Adjustment and Relative Sea-level Modeling 40 The Baltic Glacio-isostatic Adjustments 44 North Sea and Atlantic Shelf from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Atlantic Period 44 Tectonic Controls: The Mediterranean Sea 50 A Hydrologic System: The Black Sea since MIS 2 53 Holocene Climate and Coastal Morphodynamics 54 Climate 54 Coastal morphodynamics 59 Conclusion 61 References 62 3 Non-Cultural Processes of Site Formation, Preservation and Destruction 71 Introduction 71 The Continental Shelf Profile, Landscape, and Factors Determining Site Survival on Different Timescales 75 Effect of sea-level variation on the shelf profile 77 Assessments of How and Why Sites Survive or are Destroyed in the Long, Intermediate, or Short Term 80 Effects of coastal and shallow water processes on the timescale of 100 years to 20,000 years 81 Processes in the short term: weeks to 100–1000 years 82 Site Formation and Coastal Landscapes and Processes 87 High latitude (>50°N) rock weathering 88 Glacial erosion and transport 88 Eolian erosion and transport 89 Mid latitude (50°N–30°N) rock weathering 89 Fluvial erosion, transport and coastline evolution 89 Early diagenesis 90 Substrate and coastal physiography 91 Selected Case Examples 92 Golfe du Morbihan, Brittany, France, 5000 BP to 4500 BP 92 Pavlopetri, southern Greece, 5000 BP 92 Southwest Baltic, Danish and German coasts 92 Western UK and Severn Estuary, 8000 BP to 6000 BP 92 Atlit-Yam, Israel, Pre-Pottery Neolithic, 8000 BP 93 Bouldnor Cliff, Isle of Wight, UK, 8000 BP 93 Rotterdam Port, the Netherlands, North Sea, 30,000 BP to 10,000 BP 93 Cap Lévi, Anse de La Mondrée, France, 100 ka 93 A240 concession, East Anglia, UK, North Sea, 300 ka to 250 ka 93 Value of Understanding the Submerged Landscape: Sites in Context 94 Environmental and Industrial Threats to Known Sites and Preserved Submerged Landscapes 94 Conclusion 94 References 95 4 Standard Core Variables for Continental Shelf Prehistoric Research and Their Availability 103 Introduction: The Concept of Core Variables 103 Suggested Core Variables for All European Sea Areas 104 Characteristics and Sources for Core Variables 105 Bathymetry 105 Relevance of electronic charts: ECDIS 109 Available multibeam surveys, areas covered 110 Coastlines and coastal processes 110 Coastal processes: coastal behavior and erosion 111 Solid substrate geology and Quaternary geology 112 Sediments 113 European-scale data on Quaternary marine and coastal features 114 Sub-bottom acoustic data 115 Seabed core data 115 Examples of Seabed Features Relating to Terrestrial Landscapes 117 Automatic Feature Recognition 119 Recommendations 120 References 121 5 The Baltic Sea Basin 123 Introduction 123 General description 124 Coastlines 124 Bathymetry 126 Data sources 127 Earth Sciences 127 Pre-Quaternary geology 127 Pleistocene and Holocene sediment thickness 129 Data sources 130 Climate and ice-sheet history 130 Data sources 135 Development of the Baltic Sea: alternating lake and marine stages 135 Postglacial rebound, relative shore-level changes and evolution of coastlines 138 Paleogeographic reconstructions 138 Evidence for Submerged Terrestrial Landforms 141 Potential for Prehistoric Archaeological Site Survival 143 Conclusion and Recommendations 147 Acknowledgments 148 References 148 6 The Northwest Shelf 155 Introduction 155 Taphonomic Processes 155 Paleoenvironmental Change 158 Evidence Base 160 Conclusion 161 Data Sources 161 Bathymetry 161 Substrate/geology/geomorphology 162 Oceanographic processes 162 Quaternary paleoenvironments 162 Acknowledgments 163 References 163 7 The North Sea 167 Introduction 167 Physical Geography and Modern Environment 170 Quaternary Background and Paleogeographic Framework 173 Early Pleistocene 173 Middle Pleistocene 175 Late Pleistocene up to the Last Glacial Maximum 179 Late Glacial and Holocene 181 Outlook on data, mapping and reconstruction quality 184 Evidence of Submerged Landscapes on the Shelf 186 Taphonomy 190 Taphonomic variables 190 Mapping archaeological potential 193 Conclusion 195 Data sources/Useful links 196 Belgium 196 Denmark 196 Germany 196 Norway 196 The Netherlands 196 UK 197 General 197 Acknowledgments 197 References 197 8 Northern North Sea and Atlantic Northwest Approaches 207 Introduction 207 Earth Sciences and Sources of Data 208 Geomorphological background 208 Data sources: BGS seabed sediments and Quaternary sheets 1:250,000 209 Background Bedrock and Quaternary Geology 209 Bedrock geology 209 Quaternary geology 210 Bathymetry 211 Post-Last Glacial Maximum Climate, Sea Level and Paleoshorelines 213 Late Glacial shoreline isobase map 215 Holocene Relative Sea-Level Changes 217 Models of Postglacial Isostatic Adjustment 220 Relative Sea-Level Changes 220 Rockall 220 St. Kilda 220 Outer Hebrides 220 Northwest Scotland mainland 221 Northeast Scotland and the Northern Isles 221 Taphonomy and Potential for Archaeological Site Survival 221 Potential Example Areas for Future Work 223 Known Submerged Finds 224 Areas of high potential 225 Conclusion and Outlook 225 References 226 9 Paleolandscapes of the Celtic Sea and the Channel/La Manche 231 Introduction 231 Earth Sciences and Sources of Data 231 Modern coastline, best sources of high-resolution data 231 Data sources 232 Wetlands, deltas, marshes, lagoons, coastal lakes 234 Coastal geomorpho-dynamics, erosion, accumulation 236 Solid geology 237 Bathymetry 238 Vertical earth movements 240 Pleistocene and Holocene sediment thickness on the continental shelf 240 Post-LGM Climate, Sea Level, and Paleoshorelines 242 General climatic conditions and changes after the LGM 242 Evolution of sea level and coastline since the LGM 244 Climate conditions on the shelf 244 Evidence for Submerged Terrestrial Landforms and Ecology 246 Submerged river valleys 246 Descriptions or maps of known seabed-submerged terrestrial features 247 Paleoclimate and faunal indicators 247 Taphonomy and Potential for Archaeological Site Survival 248 Oceanographic conditions, wind, waves, and currents 248 Areas with the potential for discovery of archaeological material 249 Zone A: Celtic Sea, shelf margin, and Western Approaches up to the Start–Cotentin Ridge 249 Zone B: The Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary 251 Zone C: The central English Channel from the Start–Cotentin Ridge to Beachy Head 251 Zone D: The eastern Channel 252 General conclusions about possibility of site preservation 253 Potential Example Areas for Future Work 254 References 254 10 Irish Sea and Atlantic Margin 261 Introduction 261 Earth Sciences 261 Modern coastline and physical processes 261 Solid geology 264 Bathymetry, sources of bathymetric data and digital archives 265 Pleistocene and Holocene sediment thickness on the continental shelf 267 Data sources 270 Post-LGM Climate and Sea-Level Change 271 Climate change and ice-sheet evolution 271 Sea-level and paleogeographic change 274 Shelf climate 278 Shelf paleoenvironments (floral evidence) 279 Shelf paleoenvironments (faunal evidence) 280 Submerged Landscape Evidence 281 Paleochannels 281 Glacial features 283 Paleoshoreline features 283 Former terrestrial environments 286 Taphonomy and Potential for Archaeological Site Survival 288 Potential Areas for Future Work 290 Regions with least and highest chance of site survival 290 Prioritization of potential sites 291 Conclusion and Outlook 291 References 292 11 The Iberian Atlantic Margin 301 Introduction 301 Geomorphological Framework of the Iberian Atlantic Margin 302 Northern margin 302 Northwestern margin: northern Nazaré canyon 304 Western margin: southern Nazaré canyon to Cape Sines 305 Western margin between Cape Sines and Cape St. Vicente 307 Southern margin between Cape St. Vicente and Cape Santa Maria 308 Gulf of Cádiz 309 Marine Climate 310 Northwestern coast 310 Western coast 310 Southern coast between Cape St. Vicente and Cape Santa Maria 311 Quaternary Evolution 311 Past Landscapes and Their Preservation 313 Data Sources 315 Acknowledgements 315 References 315 12 The Western Mediterranean Sea 321 Introduction 321 Earth Sciences and Sources of Data 322 Modern coastline: best sources of high-resolution data 322 Solid geology 323 Bathymetry 324 Vertical earth movements 327 Pleistocene and Holocene sediment thickness on the continental shelf 332 Post-LGM Climate, Sea Level and Paleoshorelines 332 General climatic conditions 332 Evolution of sea level and coastline since the LGM 333 Broad classification of the climate conditions on the shelf 333 Submerged Terrestrial Landforms and Ecology 334 Submerged river valleys 334 Seabed submerged terrestrial features 335 Regional paleoclimate and vegetation indicators, peat, pollen, organics 336 Climate variability and marine productivity 337 Taphonomy and Potential for Archaeological Site Survival 337 Sources of oceanographic data 337 Areas of rapid erosion, and rapid accumulation of sediments since the LGM 340 Areas of maximum protection from wave and current damage 341 Coastal and wetland or lagoonal areas of prehistoric potential 342 General conclusions about site preservation 342 Potential Areas for Future Work 343 Regions with least and highest chance of site survival 343 List of the institutions and names and contacts of scientists having special research-expertise in the example areas: 346 Major industrial activities in the area which tend to disturb seabed prehistoric sites 346 Recommendation 346 References 347 12 Western Mediterranean: Annex 353 Introduction 353 The Karst of Southeast France 353 The Calanques of Marseille 354 Ancient landscape 354 The last rise of sea level 355 Submerged Caves and Chambers 355 The approaches 355 The Calanques of Marseille (Bouches-du-Rhône) 356 The massif of La Couronne 358 Departement of Var 359 Alpes Maritimes 359 Conclusion 359 References 360 13 The Central Mediterranean 361 Introduction 361 Earth Sciences 362 Geodynamic setting of the central Mediterranean shelves 362 Modern coastline 365 Wetlands, deltas, marshes, lagoons, coastal lakes 365 Coastal geomorpho-dynamics, erosion, accumulation 365 Bathymetry 367 Vertical land movements 367 Volcanoes 372 Pleistocene and Holocene Sediment Thickness on the Continental Shelf 373 Post-LGM Climate, Sea Level, and Paleoshorelines 376 General climatic conditions and change since LGM. Mediterranean Sea Surface Temperature (SST) patterns 376 Evolution of sea level and coastline since the LGM 377 Central Mediterranean wave climate 378 Submerged Terrestrial Landforms and Ecology 382 Submerged river valleys 382 Submerged marine caves 383 Regional paleoclimate and vegetation indicators 383 Areas of rapid erosion, and rapid accumulation of sediments since the LGM 387 Conclusion 387 References 388 14 Physical Characteristics of the Continental Shelves of the East Mediterranean Basin, Submerged Settlements and Landscapes — Actual Finds and Potential Discoveries 397 Introduction and Background 397 The archaeological background 397 The geological/geomorphological background 398 Formation possesses of continental shelves during low sea stands 399 Physical conditions 401 Climate 401 Waves 402 Currents 402 Description of the Regions in the Study Area 403 Libyan–Egyptian Mediterranean coast and shelf, and the Nile Delta 403 Nile sediment supply to the south Levant coast 404 Eastern Mediterranean (Levant coast) — Alexandria to Anatolia 404 The Northern multi-littoral cells — Akko to Alexandretta 412 Cyprus coast (the continental shelf down to 100 m water depth) 413 Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations 414 The survival of submerged settlements off the Carmel coast 414 The Potential for Finding Paleolandscapes and Submerged Settlements — General Outlines 415 The Levant coast: survival of sites, promising areas for discovering submerged settlements and potential for future work 417 Levantine known submerged terrestrial features 418 Recommendation for a Mediterranean–European Collaboration 419 Oceanographic and Archaeological Data Sources 419 Author contributions 419 Acknowledgments 419 References 420 15 Late Pleistocene Environmental Factors of the Aegean Region (Aegean Sea Including the Hellenic Arc) and the Identification of Potential Areas for Seabed Prehistoric Sites and Landscapes 425 Introduction 425 Geodynamic Outline and Morpho-tectonics 426 Geomorphology 429 Geological and Tectonic Background 430 Late Pleistocene Morphological Configuration 432 LGM and Post-LGM Climate 432 Overview of the Present Wind and Wave Climate 435 Preliminary Analysis of Submerged Landscapes and Survey Potential 437 North Aegean shelf 437 North Aegean Island Bridge 438 East Aegean islands 438 Central Greece 439 Central Aegean Island Bridge 439 Ionian Margin 440 West Cretan Strait 441 Crete 442 East Cretan Strait 442 Potential Areas for Future Work 443 References 445 16 Geological and Geomorphological Factors and Marine Conditions of the Azov-Black Sea Basin and Coastal Characteristics as They Determine Prospecting for Seabed Prehistoric Sites on the Continental Shelf 451 Introduction 452 Earth Sciences Data 453 Main sources of data 453 Geodynamic settings of the Black Sea 456 Vertical earth movements and rates of vertical coastal displacement 457 Solid geology of the Black Sea 458 Bathymetry of the Black Sea 461 Modern coastline 462 Coastal geomorpho-dynamics, erosion, accumulation 468 Landscape regions of the northwestern Black Sea shelf 469 Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphy, sediment thickness on the continental shelf, modern sedimentation rates, data sources 469 Post-LGM Climate, Sea Level, and Paleoshorelines 476 Evidence for Submerged Terrestrial Landforms and Ecology 480 Potential for Archaeological Site Survival 483 Potential Areas for Future Work 484 Conclusion 484 Acknowledgments 485 References 485 17 Late Pleistocene Environmental Factors defining the Black Sea, and Submerged Landscapes on the Western Continental Shelf 499 Introduction 499 Regional Geology of the Black Sea Basin 500 Bathymetry and High Resolution Data 502 Marine Sedimentology Research 502 Post-LGM Climate, Sea Level, and Paleoshorelines 504 Water-level fluctuation scenario 504 Discussion of sea-level curve and its archaeological implications 505 Modern Coastline and Coastal Processes: the Danube Delta 507 Coastal and Shelf Geomorpho-Dynamics, Erosion, and Accumulation 508 Conclusion 509 References 510 18 Submerged Prehistoric Heritage Potential of the Romanian Black Sea Shelf 517 Introduction 517 Romanian Black Sea Coast 518 Hydro-meteorological regime 518 Geomorphological data 520 Coastal zone geology 523 Romanian Black Sea Shelf 525 Shelf geomorphology 525 Inner shelf 525 Outer shelf 526 Relict geomorphologic structures 527 Late Quaternary Shelf Evolution 529 A special note concerning the Danube Delta 531 Dynamics of Neo-Eneolithic Settlements in the Western Part of the Black Sea Region 531 Conclusion 535 References 535 Glossary of Acronyms 539 Index 543 EULA 554 Quaternary Paleoenvironments Examines The Drowned Landscapes Exposed As Extensive And Attractive Territory For Prehistoric Human Settlement During The Ice Ages Of The Pleistocene, When Sea Levels Dropped To 120 M-135 M Below Their Current Levels. This Book Provides An Overview Of The Geological, Geomorphological, Climatic And Sea-level History Of The European Continental Shelf As A Whole, As Well As A Series Of Detailed Regional Reviews For Each Of The Major Sea Basins. The Nature And Variable Attractions Of The Landscapes And Resources Available For Human Exploitation Are Examined, As Are The Conditions Under Which Archaeological Sites And Landscape Features Are Likely To Have Been Preserved, Destroyed Or Buried By Sediment During Sea-level Rise. The Authors Also Discuss The Extent To Which We Can Predict Where To Look For Drowned Landscapes With The Greatest Chance Of Success, With Frequent Reference To Examples Of Preserved Prehistoric Sites In Different Submerged Environments. Nicholas C. Flemming Has Studied Submerged Terrestrial Archaeological Sites And Changes Of Sea Level For More Than 50 Years, And Is The Author Of Several Books And Papers On The Subject. He Is A Visiting Research Fellow At The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, A Fellow Of The Society Of Antiquaries Of London, A Fellow Of The Society For Underwater Technology, And A Vice-president Of The Nautical Archaeology Society. Jan Harff Is Professor Of Geosciences And Seafloor Geology At The University Of Szczecin, Poland. He Collaborates With Marine Research Institutes In The Baltic Area And Scandinavia, Russia, The United States And China. He Coordinated (together With Friedrich Luth) The Research Project Sincos (sinking Coasts - Geosphere, Ecosphere And Anthroposphere Of The Holocene Southern Baltic Sea), And Chaired Working Group 2 (environmental Data And Reconstruction) Of The Cost Action Td0902: Splashcos Delminda Moura Is A Geologist At The Universidade Do Algarve- Centre For Marine And Environmental Research (cima), Portugal, Conducting Research On Landscape Evolution During The Quaternary, As Forced By Climatic And Sea-level Changes. She Devotes Particular Attention To The Use Of Morphological, Sedimentological And Biological Proxies To Reconstruct Past Sea Levels. Anthony Burgess Graduated In 1996 From The University Of Wales (swansea), And Then Joined The Home Office, Working As A Crime Analyst Until 2008. After Leaving The Home Office And Enjoying An Extended Period Of Travel, He Completed His Masters In Maritime Archaeology At The University Of Southampton, And Is Currently A Phd Candidate In Archaeology At The University Of Malta. Geoffrey N. Bailey Is Anniversary Professor Of Archaeology In The University Of York, And Chairman Of The Eu-funded Splashcos Programme. His Research Interests Are In Coastal Prehistory, Submerged Landscapes And Quaternary-scale Environmental Change, And He Has Engaged In Major Projects On These Themes In Australia, Africa, Greece, Saudi Arabia And The Uk, Most Recently As Principal Investigator Of The European Research Council Disperse Project, Concerned With The Role Of Geologically Unstable Landscapes And Coastal Environments In Patterns Of Early Human Dispersal In Africa, The Red Sea And The Arabian Peninsula. He Is A Fellow Of The Society Of Antiquaries Of London, A Member Of Academia Europaea, And President Of The Uispp Commission On Coastal Prehistory And Submerged Landscapes. --book Jacket. Edited By Nicholas C. Flemming [and Four Others]. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Mode Of Access: World Wide Web.

Quaternary Paleoenvironments examines the drowned landscapes exposed as extensive and attractive territory for prehistoric human settlement during the Ice Ages of the Pleistocene, when sea levels dropped to 120m-135m below their current levels. This volume provides an overview of the geological, geomorphological, climatic and sea-level history of the European continental shelf as a whole, as well as a series of detailed regional reviews for each of the major sea basins. The nature and variable attractions of the landscapes and resources available for human exploitation are examined, as are the conditions under which archaeological sites and landscape features are likely to have been preserved, destroyed or buried by sediment during sea-level rise. The authors also discuss the extent to which we can predict where to look for drowned landscapes with the greatest chance of success, with frequent reference to examples of preserved prehistoric sites in different submerged environments.

Quaternary Paleoenvironments will be of interest to archaeologists, geologists, marine scientists, palaeoanthropologists, cultural heritage managers, geographers, and all those with an interest in the drowned landscapes of the continental shelf.