استرس جنگ، درگیری و فاجعه

Stress is a universal phenomenon that impacts adversely on most people. Following on the heels of Stress Science: Neuroendocrinology and Stress Consequences: Mental, Neuropsychological and Socioeconomic , this third derivative volume will provide a readily accessible and affordable compendium that explains the phenomenon of stress as it relates physically and mentally to war, conflict and disaster. The first section will be dedicated to study of the link between stress and various forms of conflict. Specific instances of conflict will be discussed - the Gulf wars, Korea, Hiroshima bombing, the Holocaust, 9/11, Northern Ireland, terrorism in general, torture. The second section will explore the stress impact of more general physical disasters such as airline and vehicle accidents, earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes. The final section will focus on the clinical relationship between conflict stress and various mental diseases – PTSD, suicide, disaster syndrome, etc – as well as the adverse impact of stress on human physical health in general. Comprised of about 100 top articles selected from Elsevier’s Encyclopedias of Stress , the volume will provide a valuable desk reference that will put relevant articles readily at the fingertips of all scientists who consider stress. • Chapters offer impressive and unique scope with topics addressing the relationship between stress generated by war, conflict and disaster and various physical/mental disorders • Richly illustrated with over 200 figures, dozens in color • Articles carefully selected by one of the world’s most preeminent stress researchers and contributors represent the most outstanding scholarship in the field, with each chapter providing fully vetted and reliable expert knowledge Cover Page......Page 1 Stress of War, Conflict and Disaster......Page 2 Introduction......Page 6 Bibliography......Page 7 Contents......Page 8 List of Contributors......Page 14 I. Introduction – Evolution – An Thropology......Page 20 Indigenous Peoples' Responses to Conquest......Page 554 Some Earlier, Mostly Philosophical Views of Human Nature......Page 22 Innate, that is, Natural Sources of Tension......Page 26 Some Research in the Neurophysiology of Assertive and Violent Behavior......Page 27 Research in Nerves......Page 28 Glossary......Page 30 Situations in Which Stress Is Useful......Page 31 Cost-Benefit Trade-Offs......Page 32 Adrenal Cortical Response......Page 33 Adaptive Regulation of Stress Responsiveness......Page 34 Further Reading......Page 35 Glossary......Page 36 Evolution by Natural Selection......Page 37 Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory and Inclusive Fitness......Page 38 Conflicts with Kin and Nonkin......Page 39 The Cinderella Effect and Conflicts of Reproduction......Page 40 Sex Differences in Reproductive Opportunities......Page 41 The Yanomamö Killers......Page 43 Evolution of Sexual Violence......Page 44 Adaptations, Law, and Morality......Page 46 Glossary......Page 47 Overview......Page 48 Classic Ethnographic Studies......Page 49 Modes of Settling Conflicts, Including Ritual......Page 50 The Place of Language Forms and Discourse in Disputing......Page 51 The Anthropology of War, and Warfare in `Tribal ́ Contexts......Page 52 Violence, Ethnicity, and Nationalism......Page 53 Homicide and Suicide......Page 54 Female Genital Mutilation......Page 55 Terror and Terrorism: The Role of the Imagination......Page 56 Further Reading......Page 57 Glossary......Page 58 Paradigms on Social Conflict......Page 59 Relative Deprivation and Basic Needs......Page 60 Social Identity, Gender, and Violence......Page 61 Functionalism and Social Integration......Page 62 Class Conflict and Agency......Page 63 Functions of Conflict......Page 64 Implications for Conflict Resolution......Page 65 Further Reading......Page 66 II. Neurobiology, Neurochemistry – Animal Models......Page 68 Introduction......Page 70 Combat Stress Reaction and Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 71 Adrenal Hormones/Neurotransmitters......Page 74 Serotonin......Page 75 Catecholamines (Norepinephrine, Dopamine) and Related Compounds......Page 79 Peptides......Page 80 Monoamine Oxidase......Page 81 Cholesterol......Page 82 Further Reading......Page 83 Predispositions and Precipitants......Page 451 Glossary......Page 84 Why Natural Selection Can Produce Aggressive Behavior......Page 85 Understanding Aggression in Animals: Game Theory in Evolutionary Studies......Page 86 Respect for Ownership......Page 87 Neighbors and Dear Enemies......Page 88 Conflicts in Social Groups......Page 89 Reproductive Skew Theory and Dominance Hierarchies......Page 90 Aggression in Sexual Contexts......Page 91 Summary......Page 92 Glossary......Page 93 Definitions......Page 94 Functions of Aggression......Page 95 Aggression in a Social Context......Page 96 The Control of Aggressive Sequences......Page 97 Losing, Dominance, and Territoriality......Page 98 Restoring Peace......Page 99 Further Reading......Page 100 III. Psychological, Sociological And Behavioral Substrates for Conflict, Violence and War......Page 102 Conceptions of Aggression......Page 104 Seeking the Others ́ Injury......Page 105 The question of automatic-impulsive aggression......Page 106 Movie and television violence......Page 107 Frustration......Page 108 Associations with the perceived source of the experienced displeasure......Page 109 Appraisals and Attributions......Page 110 Aggressive Personalities: Hostile Expectations and Weak Restraints against Aggression......Page 111 Conclusion......Page 112 Glossary......Page 113 Territoriality: Inside the Walls Is Safe, Outside the Walls Is Dangerous......Page 114 The Stranger Is Unpredictable and Terrifying......Page 116 Strange Ideas and Experiences Are Terrifying......Page 117 Motivation for Aggression: The Strange Is Demonic and Should be Destroyed......Page 118 Intergroup Violence......Page 119 Mass Violence......Page 121 Further Reading......Page 123 Glossary......Page 124 Cognitive Influences in Social Contexts......Page 125 Three Kinds of Violence: Episodic, Structural, and Cultural......Page 126 Analysis of Conflict and Violence at Multiple Levels......Page 127 Social Psychology of Peace-making......Page 129 Pursuing more Equitable Relations......Page 130 Reconstructing War-Torn Societies......Page 131 Institutionalization of Violence......Page 132 Introduction......Page 133 Specter of Security and the Cult of Violence......Page 134 The State as a Source of Violence......Page 135 `Development ́ and Violence......Page 136 Countervailing Tendencies......Page 137 Mass Media, General View......Page 138 The Age of Enlightenment......Page 139 Marxism......Page 140 Classic Sociology......Page 141 The Social Sciences after World War II......Page 142 The Contemporary Theoretical Situation......Page 143 Further Reading......Page 144 Origins of the Concept......Page 145 Relationships between Direct and Indirect Violence......Page 147 Structural Violence in Peace Research and Peace Action......Page 149 Further Reading......Page 151 IV. War Precursors......Page 154 Introduction......Page 156 Warrior Societies......Page 157 Training......Page 158 War Honors......Page 159 Trophies......Page 160 Avoiding the Demands of Warriorhood......Page 161 The Dynamics of Gang Involvement......Page 162 States......Page 163 Glossary......Page 165 Gangs in History......Page 166 Gender and Gangs......Page 167 Gangs and Delinquency......Page 168 Entering and Leaving Gangs......Page 169 Types of Response......Page 170 Major Gang Initiatives......Page 171 Clan and Tribal Conflict......Page 172 Glossary......Page 267 Cause of Feuding and Internal War......Page 173 Bands......Page 174 Infrastructure......Page 175 What They Are......Page 176 Why Military Organizations?......Page 177 Basic Pattern of Warfare......Page 178 Further Reading......Page 179 Glossary......Page 180 Civil Society, Violence, and War in Historical Perspective......Page 181 Civil Society and the Cold War......Page 182 Women and the War System......Page 184 Military Education and Training......Page 185 Collective Memory......Page 186 Political and Social Trends......Page 187 Conclusion: Viewed through a Gendered Lens......Page 188 Further Reading......Page 189 Further Reading......Page 586 Ritual and Symbolic Behavior among Animals......Page 190 Ritual and Symbolic Behavior among People......Page 191 Ritual and Conflict......Page 192 Ritual, Symbolic Action, and Building Peace......Page 194 What is Folklore?......Page 196 Folklore in Primarily Peaceful Contexts......Page 197 Folklore and Violence......Page 199 Folklore and War......Page 201 Prospects for Future Research......Page 204 Glossary......Page 205 The need for force......Page 206 The resistance to killing......Page 207 Posturing as a psychological weapon......Page 208 Distance as a psychological weapon......Page 209 Conditioning as a psychological weapon......Page 210 The Chariot......Page 211 The Roman System......Page 212 The Age of Projectile Weapons......Page 213 Advances in Weapons Effectiveness......Page 214 Advances in Medical Effectiveness......Page 215 Military Conditioning as Entertainment for Children......Page 216 Conclusion: The Future of Weapons Evolution......Page 217 Further Reading......Page 218 The Meaning of Civil Society......Page 219 Civil Society on a Global Scale......Page 221 Civil Society in Contemporary War and Peace......Page 225 Further Reading......Page 227 Glossary......Page 228 Discipline......Page 229 From punitive to positive social control......Page 230 Professional Ethos......Page 231 Ceremony and Etiquette......Page 232 Cohesion and Esprit de Corps......Page 233 A Cautionary Note......Page 235 Bearers of Military Culture in Civilian Society......Page 239 Civilian Reception of Military Culture......Page 240 Relevant Websites......Page 241 V. Wars......Page 242 The Nature and Character of War......Page 244 Stress Model......Page 750 The Trend toward Total War......Page 245 The Impact of Nuclear Weapons......Page 246 The Trend toward Irregular Warfare......Page 247 The Decline of War......Page 248 Canadian prisoners of war......Page 525 International Efforts to Prevent War......Page 249 Constraints on Warfare......Page 250 Information Age Warfare......Page 251 The Changing Character of Irregular Warfare......Page 252 Further Reading......Page 254 Economic Causes of War and Peace......Page 255 Introduction......Page 689 A Brief History of the Economic Causes of War and Peace......Page 256 War and Peace in the World of Early Agriculture......Page 257 War and Peace and the Rise of the State......Page 258 The Rise of Capitalism......Page 259 War as Evolutionary Strategy......Page 261 Mainstream Economic Theories of War and Peace......Page 262 Group Commitment......Page 263 Loyalty to Leaders in Modern Times......Page 264 The Socioeconomic Dynamics of Peace Creation......Page 265 Definition of Civil War......Page 268 Types of Civil War......Page 269 Correlates of Civil War......Page 270 Expansion of Civil Wars......Page 271 Resolution of Civil Wars......Page 273 Conclusion......Page 274 Further Reading......Page 275 World War I in World History......Page 276 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland......Page 277 United States......Page 278 Use of New Weapons and Technologies......Page 279 Worldwide Warfare......Page 280 Course of Events......Page 281 Peace Settlement and War Guilt Debate......Page 282 Further Reading......Page 287 The Origins of World War II......Page 288 The Expansion of the Axis (1939-42)......Page 291 The Turning of the Tide (1942-43)......Page 294 Nations at War......Page 295 The Defeat of the Axis (1943-45)......Page 297 Aftermath......Page 299 Introduction......Page 300 Some Complexities of Definition(s)......Page 301 What Genocide Is Not......Page 302 Active and Passive Democide......Page 303 How Many at a Time, How Many Altogether......Page 304 Strategic-Tactical: Dominance Maintaining/Intimidating/Threat Controlling......Page 305 Genocidal and Other Democidal Massacres......Page 306 Pre-Twentieth Century......Page 307 Twentieth Century through 1945......Page 308 Twentieth Century after 1945......Page 309 East Pakistan/East Bengal/Bangladesh......Page 310 Participants......Page 311 Perpetrators......Page 312 Causes of Genocide, Politicide, and Other Forms of Democide......Page 313 Biological and sociobiological interpretations......Page 314 Individually oriented perspectives......Page 315 Judicial and Other Archives, Investigations, and Reports......Page 316 Intended Mass Extinctions of Human Beings at the Millennial Turn......Page 317 Public Awareness of Democide......Page 318 Casual Remembrances, Unforgettable Memories, Vague Recollections......Page 319 Further Reading......Page 320 Glossary......Page 321 Classification of Chemical Weapons......Page 322 Miscellaneous Lesser Chemical Warfare Agents......Page 323 Further Reading......Page 324 Suicide and Other Violence Toward the Self......Page 325 World War II......Page 326 Post-World War II......Page 327 Article VI: Activities not prohibited under this convention......Page 328 Article XII: Measures to redress a situation and to ensure compliance, including sanctions......Page 329 Article VII......Page 331 Further Reading......Page 332 Fission Bombs......Page 333 The Effects of Nuclear Weapons......Page 335 Nuclear Weapons and the Character of War......Page 337 The Strategy of Deterrence......Page 338 Nuclear Targeting......Page 339 Central Deterrence......Page 341 Extended Deterrence......Page 343 The Role of Arms Control......Page 344 Where Are We Today?......Page 345 Further Reading......Page 346 Hiroshima Bombing, Stress Effects of......Page 347 Further Reading......Page 350 Evaluating the Threat......Page 351 Nuclear Warfare Anxiety......Page 352 How Do the Nuclear Anxious Differ from Others?......Page 353 Health Risks of the Gulf War......Page 354 Psychological Symptoms in Persian Gulf Veterans......Page 355 Psychological Symptoms in Civilians Affected by the Persian Gulf War......Page 356 Physical Symptoms in Gulf War Veterans......Page 357 Acknowledgments......Page 358 Korean Conflict, Stress Effects of......Page 359 Summary......Page 360 Glossary......Page 361 Early Survey of Survivors of Violence......Page 362 The Kegworth Air Disaster......Page 363 Theoretical Model Used in Debriefing......Page 364 How Guerrillas Fight......Page 365 Defeating Guerrillas......Page 366 The Vendee......Page 367 The American Civil War......Page 368 The Philippines: Aguinaldo......Page 369 Greece......Page 370 The Philippines: The Huks......Page 371 Cuba, Castro, and Guevara......Page 372 French Indochina......Page 373 The Americans and Vietnam......Page 374 Afghanistan......Page 375 And the Future......Page 376 Glossary......Page 377 Women as Direct Casualties......Page 378 Wartime Sexual Violence against Women......Page 379 Prostitution......Page 380 Loss of Family......Page 381 Military Spending......Page 382 Soldiers......Page 383 Mourning......Page 384 Essentialism versus Difference......Page 385 Women and Collective Organizing......Page 386 Women Making Policy......Page 387 Further Reading......Page 388 Relevant Websites......Page 389 VI. Terrorism......Page 390 Glossary......Page 392 Effects of Terrorism on Victims......Page 393 The Effect of Terrorism on Society......Page 394 Glossary......Page 395 The Success of Suicide Terrorism......Page 397 Sponsoring-Groups Motivations......Page 398 Individual Motivations......Page 399 Trauma-Based Motivations......Page 400 Alienation, Marginalization, Loss of Identity, Secondary Traumatization, and Desire for Life Meaningfulness, Belonging, and He.......Page 401 Societal Support for Suicide Terrorism......Page 402 Further Reading......Page 403 Researching the Impact of Disasters on Elderly People - Some Methodological Issues......Page 404 What Happened to the Elderly at Lockerbie......Page 405 What Do We Know about the Response of Elderly People to Experiencing Disasters?......Page 406 Further Reading......Page 407 Effects on Survivors......Page 408 Emergency Personnel and Disaster Mental Health......Page 409 Glossary......Page 410 The Who, What, Where, How, and Why of 9/11......Page 411 Paradoxes about Post-9/11 Stress, Suicide, and Religion......Page 412 Muslims and Mental Health after 9/11......Page 413 Jewish Issues Associated with 9/11 Stress......Page 415 Glossary......Page 416 Historical Examples......Page 417 Violence in Religious Symbolism......Page 418 Varieties of Violence......Page 419 Sanctions for Violence......Page 420 Varieties of Nonviolence......Page 423 Sanctions for Nonviolence......Page 424 Ultimate Nonviolence: The Eschatological Hope......Page 425 Glossary......Page 426 Theory......Page 427 Patient 2......Page 428 Research......Page 429 Stress Management in War......Page 430 Glossary......Page 431 The Nature of the Threat......Page 432 Strategies for Combating Bioterrorism......Page 433 Diplomacy......Page 434 Deterrence......Page 435 Physical protection......Page 436 Postattack medical response......Page 437 Attack detection and identification......Page 438 Medical logistics and the prophylaxis campaign......Page 440 Decontamination......Page 441 Further Reading......Page 442 Relevant Websites......Page 443 VII. Combat Reaction and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 444 Introduction......Page 446 Risk Factors for Combat Stress Reaction......Page 447 Treatment of Combat Stress Reaction......Page 448 Prevention of Combat Stress Reaction......Page 449 Further Reading......Page 450 Treatment......Page 452 Prevention......Page 453 Introduction......Page 454 Glossary......Page 701 Treatment......Page 455 Difficulties in Defining Altruism......Page 802 Problems with a Diagnosis of PTSD......Page 458 Psychological Effects of Combat......Page 459 Introduction: A Legacy of Lies......Page 460 Psychiatric Casualties in War......Page 461 Physiological Arousal and Fear......Page 462 The Trauma of Close-Range, Interpersonal Aggression......Page 463 The Physiology of Close Combat......Page 464 A Resistance to Killing......Page 465 The Price of Overcoming the Resistance to Killing......Page 466 Further Reading......Page 468 Methods......Page 469 Results......Page 470 Discussion......Page 471 Glossary......Page 474 The Vietnam War......Page 475 Key Concerns......Page 729 Later Research......Page 476 Psychobiological and Biomedical Findings......Page 477 Studies of Other Veteran Populations after Vietnam......Page 479 Conclusion......Page 480 Further Reading......Page 481 Traumatic Stress and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, the Israeli Experience......Page 482 The Yom Kippur War and Lebanon Wars......Page 483 Lessons from the Persian Gulf War......Page 484 Classroom cooperation to achieve individual grades......Page 855 Physiological Arousal and Posttraumatic Disorder......Page 485 Further Reading......Page 486 Historical and Political Background of the Conflict......Page 487 Effects on Health......Page 488 Effects on Mortality......Page 489 Effects on Social Behavior and Violence......Page 490 War-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Treatment of......Page 491 Assessment and Diagnosis......Page 492 Summary......Page 493 Glossary......Page 494 Unique Stressors of Peacekeeping......Page 495 Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 496 Introduction......Page 497 Genetic Factors......Page 498 Biological and Psychosocial Influences Between Birth and Mobilization/Deployment......Page 499 Post-deployment Stress......Page 500 Summary......Page 501 Further Reading......Page 502 Introduction......Page 503 Summary......Page 504 Gulf War Syndrome, Psychological and Chemical Stressors......Page 506 The Blood-Brain Barrier Is Disrupted under Stress......Page 507 Early Immediate Response Genes Modulate Acute Stress Signals......Page 508 Poststress Changes Are Long-Lasting......Page 509 Acetylcholinesterase Accumulation Confers Protection against Anticholinesterases......Page 510 Delayed Nervous System Deterioration under Persistent Acetylcholinesterase Overexpression......Page 511 Retrospective and Prospective Implications......Page 512 Introduction......Page 513 Study design and population......Page 514 Discussion......Page 515 Acknowledgments......Page 518 Gulf War Illnesses......Page 519 VIII. Prisoners of War and Torture......Page 522 U.S. World War II and Korean prisoners of war......Page 524 Separation and Dislocation......Page 784 Etiological Factors......Page 526 Summary......Page 527 Further Reading......Page 688 Stage II: Disbelief......Page 528 Stage IV: Resistance/Compliance......Page 529 Stage VI: Eventual Acceptance......Page 530 Further Reading......Page 531 Stage II - Hyperarousal......Page 532 Stage V - Restitution......Page 533 Stage VI - Gradual Readjustment......Page 534 Further Reading......Page 535 Torture in the World Today......Page 536 Physical Torture......Page 537 The Effect of Torture......Page 538 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Torture Survivors......Page 539 Postmodern Perspective......Page 540 The Disutility of State Torture Model......Page 541 Glossary......Page 542 Introduction......Page 543 The Effects of Venting Unit 2......Page 776 Recruitment of State Torturers......Page 544 Expediency Perspective......Page 545 Threat Assessment Perspective......Page 546 International Responses to the Use of State Torture......Page 548 Conclusion......Page 549 Further Reading......Page 550 IX. Impact of War on Civilians......Page 552 A. Indigenous and Civilian Populations......Page 553 Communication Studies, Overview......Page 648 Who are Indigenous Peoples?......Page 555 Indigenous Peoples and Conquest......Page 556 Indigenous Peoples ́ Responses in Settler States......Page 559 The United States......Page 560 Canada......Page 561 New Zealand......Page 562 Australia......Page 563 Indigenous Resistance in Central and South America......Page 565 Conclusion......Page 566 Chernobyl, Stress Effects of......Page 567 Trends in Conflict......Page 568 Impact on Health Reveals Impact on Health System......Page 569 Methodological Issues......Page 570 War and Political Violence in the Twentieth Century......Page 571 Current Understanding of Mental Health Consequences......Page 572 Physical Health Consequences of Modern Warfare......Page 573 Terrorism......Page 574 Costs Relating to the Health Consequences of War and Political Violence......Page 575 Conclusions......Page 576 Glossary......Page 577 Introduction......Page 578 Access to Services......Page 579 Health Services Activity......Page 580 Human Resources......Page 581 Policy shifts......Page 582 Positive Effects of Conflict on Health Systems......Page 584 Postconflict Challenges......Page 585 Introduction: Beyond the Body Count......Page 587 The Concept of Trauma......Page 588 Social Maps......Page 589 Cumulative Risk Model......Page 591 Competence and Resilient Coping......Page 592 Demographics of War......Page 594 Compensatory and Reactionary Realignment of Family Structure: A Case Study......Page 595 Displacement......Page 596 Parental adjustment......Page 597 Conclusion......Page 598 Further Reading......Page 851 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder......Page 599 Transcultural Issues......Page 600 Defenses......Page 601 Early intervention approaches......Page 602 Psychological therapy......Page 603 Populations Exposed to Persecution and Conflict Including Refugees and Asylum-Seekers......Page 604 Case Study......Page 605 Further Reading......Page 606 Glossary......Page 607 History and Overview of the Field......Page 608 Definitions and Theories......Page 609 Systemic or Secondary Traumatic Stress Models......Page 610 Desensitization and the Reciprocal Inhibition Hypothesis......Page 611 The Forms of Treatment for the Traumatized......Page 612 Treatment Approaches in Traumatology......Page 613 Conclusion......Page 614 Further Reading......Page 615 Introduction......Page 617 Differentiating between Acute Mental Health Symptoms That Will Probably Abate and Those That Will Develop into Long-Term or .........Page 618 The Role of Biological Studies in Helping to Identify Pathological Responses......Page 619 Glossary......Page 620 The Epidemiology of Suicide......Page 621 Social Causation Theories......Page 622 Explaining Individual Suicides......Page 623 Suicidal Murderers and Murderous Suicides......Page 624 Suicide in German Concentration and Extermination Camps......Page 625 Prevention of Suicide......Page 626 Relevant Websites......Page 627 B. Holocaust Survivors – Refugees......Page 628 Physical Effects......Page 629 Psychiatric Effects......Page 630 Further Reading......Page 631 Roundups and deportation......Page 632 Coping and defenses......Page 633 Psychosocial and psychiatric sequelae......Page 634 Adult Survivors......Page 635 Further Reading......Page 636 Wartime Situations......Page 637 Stress and Trauma Experiences on the Moral and Spiritual Levels......Page 638 Glossary......Page 639 Protective Factors......Page 640 Psychiatric Disorders......Page 641 History of the Concept of Survivor Guilt......Page 642 Social Responses......Page 643 Further Reading......Page 644 X. Economics and Costs of War......Page 646 Macroeconomic Implications of War......Page 650 Toward Measuring the Cost of War......Page 651 Further Reading......Page 653 Economics of War and Peace, Overview......Page 654 Conflict Resolution......Page 655 Economic Conversion and the Peace Dividend......Page 656 Inequity as Violence......Page 657 Dynamics of Arms Races and Strategic Stability......Page 658 United Nations Reform......Page 659 Financing the United Nations System......Page 661 New Aspects of International Security: Searching for Peace......Page 663 Further Reading......Page 665 Introduction......Page 666 The Israeli-Arab Conflict: A Timeline66Extracted from Abu-Qarn and Abu-Bader (2008).......Page 667 Econometric Methodologies......Page 669 Data Description and Sources......Page 670 Results......Page 671 Summary and Conclusions......Page 674 Further Reading......Page 675 XI. Communications – Relevance for War......Page 676 Interpersonal Conflict, Culture, and Organizations......Page 678 Developmental and Intergroup Parameters of Interpersonal Conflict......Page 680 A Cognitive-Communication Model......Page 681 Aggression......Page 682 Desensitization......Page 683 Social Learning Theory......Page 684 Excitation Transfer......Page 685 Laboratory studies......Page 686 Field experiments......Page 687 How the Institution of Language Shapes Perception and Behavior......Page 690 Linguistic Violence......Page 691 The Language of War......Page 692 The Use of Euphemisms for War......Page 693 The Use of Propaganda in War......Page 694 Imposition of Warist Discourse as Legitimate......Page 695 The Language of Negative Peace......Page 697 The Language of Positive Peace......Page 698 Selective Advantages of Complex Language......Page 702 Communication as Sense-Making Practice......Page 703 Miscommunication......Page 704 Symbolic Violence......Page 705 Ethnic Conflict......Page 707 Third-Party Intervention......Page 708 Alternatives to Violence......Page 709 Further Reading......Page 711 Introduction......Page 712 Definition......Page 713 Preparation for Mediation......Page 714 Postmediation Activities......Page 715 Mediation Strategies and Tactics......Page 716 Negotiation......Page 717 Further Reading......Page 719 Glossary......Page 720 How Are We Influenced by the Mass Media?......Page 721 Issues to Consider About Media Effects......Page 723 Defining Violence in the Media......Page 724 Current Social Scientific Views on Media Violence and Aggressive Behavior......Page 725 Critical Viewing......Page 727 Further Reading......Page 728 Israel......Page 730 Australasia......Page 731 The Meaning of Violence......Page 732 Insights from Viewers ́ Perceptions......Page 733 Types of Evidence......Page 734 Correlational surveys......Page 735 Natural experiments......Page 736 Intervention studies......Page 737 Violence in Factual Programs......Page 738 Conflict in the News......Page 739 Research, Regulation, and Control......Page 740 Further Reading......Page 741 Points of Agreement and Disagreement With Anderson et al.......Page 742 Publication Bias Exists in VVG Studies......Page 743 Is Psychology Inventing a Phantom Youth Violence Crisis?......Page 744 Further Reading......Page 746 XII. Disasters......Page 748 Pilot Error......Page 751 Risk Factors......Page 752 Further Reading......Page 753 The Chernobyl Accident: Health Consequences......Page 754 On-Site Consequences......Page 755 Short-Term Stress Effects......Page 756 Short- and Long-Term Stress Effects in Far-Off Areas......Page 757 Glossary......Page 758 Medium-Term Effects......Page 759 Late Phase Adaptation - Anger and Physical Symptoms......Page 760 Resolution or Symptom Development......Page 761 Relevant Website......Page 762 Introduction and Background......Page 763 Early Adaptation - the Disbelief and Denial Response......Page 765 Mid-Phase Adaptation - Intrusions......Page 766 Special Populations......Page 767 Further Reading......Page 768 Hurricane Katrina......Page 769 Health Issues......Page 770 Further Reading......Page 771 Specific Phobia......Page 772 Major Depressive Disorder......Page 773 What Predicts Remission of Psychological Disorder?......Page 774 Glossary......Page 775 Further Reading......Page 777 Features of Disaster Syndrome......Page 778 Ensuing Disaster Phases......Page 779 Glossary......Page 780 Disaster Stressors......Page 781 Life Threat and Traumatic Injury......Page 782 Personal losses......Page 783 Previous Exposure......Page 785 The Elderly......Page 786 Recovery Environment......Page 787 Further Reading......Page 788 Emergency Personnel, Stress in......Page 789 Recognition of the Problem......Page 790 Predictors......Page 791 Biological Factors......Page 792 Interventions......Page 793 Glossary......Page 794 Cardiovascular Stress......Page 795 Psychological Stress......Page 796 Further Reading......Page 797 XIII. Altruism – Cooper Ation......Page 798 Glossary......Page 800 A Tentative Consensus for Defining Aggression......Page 801 Cultural Variation in Conflict Strategies......Page 803 Cultures with Low Levels of Aggression......Page 804 Variation in Altruism......Page 805 Case Study: The Peaceful Semai and the Aggressive Waorani......Page 806 Evolutionary and Cultural Considerations of Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism......Page 807 Beyond Nature versus Nurture......Page 809 An Example: The Learning of Peacefulness or Aggressiveness among Zapotec Children......Page 810 Indirect Aggression......Page 811 Conclusions......Page 812 Further Reading......Page 813 Glossary......Page 814 The Existence and Nature of Peaceful Societies......Page 815 The Peacefulness-Aggressiveness Continuum......Page 817 Cultural changes in aggressiveness/peacefulness over time......Page 819 The Importance of Belief Systems......Page 820 Socialization for Peace......Page 821 Egalitarianism......Page 823 Internalization of Self-Restraint......Page 824 Third-Party Involvement in Conflict Resolution......Page 825 Conclusions......Page 826 Peace Culture......Page 827 Conceptual Dimensions of Peace Culture......Page 828 Cultures of War and Peace in the Historical Record......Page 829 Historical Utopianism......Page 830 Historical Background......Page 831 Historical Background......Page 832 The Concept of Women ́s Culture......Page 833 Conceptual Contributions to Peace Culture......Page 834 Peace Journeying......Page 835 Basic Social Bonding......Page 836 The Mbuti......Page 837 Celebration and ritual......Page 838 Sanctuaries and zones of peace......Page 839 Relevant Websites......Page 840 Introduction......Pag Stress is a universal phenomenon that impacts adversely on most people.nbsp, Following on the heels of Stress Science: Neuroendocrinologyand Stress Consequences: Mental, Neuropsychological and Socioeconomic, this third derivative volume will provide a readily accessible and affordable compendium that explains the phenomenon of stress as it relates physically and mentally to war, conflict and disaster.nbsp, The first section will be dedicated to study of the link between stress and various forms of conflict.nbsp, Specific instances of conflict will be discussed - the Gulf wars, Korea, Hiroshima bombing, the Holocaust, 9/11, Northern Ireland, terrorism in general, torture.nbsp, The second section will explore the stress impact of more general physical disasters such as airline and vehicle accidents, earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes.nbsp, The final section will focus on the clinical relationship between conflict stress and various mental diseases - PTSD, suicide, disaster syndrome, etc - as well as the adverse impact of stress on human physical health in general.nbsp, Comprised of about 100 top articles selected from Elsevier's Encyclopedias of Stress, the volume will provide a valuable desk reference that will put relevant articles readily at the fingertips of all scientists who consider stress. . Chapters offer impressive and unique scope with topics addressing the nbsp,relationship between stress generated by war, conflict and disaster and nbsp,various physical/mental disorders . Richly illustrated with over 200 figures, dozens in color . Articles carefully selected by one of the world's most preeminent stress researchers and contributors represent the most outstanding scholarship in the field, with each chapter providing fully vetted and reliable expert knowledge A sequel to Stress Science and Stress Consequences, this third volume in Elsevier's stress series provides a readily accessible and systematic compendium on the physical and mental stresses of war, cobat, conflict and disaster. The centre-piece sections on War Precursors, Wars and Terrorism cover most key wars and conflict-related issues that have occurred during the last 100 years, including, for example, the two World Wars, the Gulf wars, Korea, Hiroshima bombing, genocide and the Holocaust, 9/11, Northern Ireland, terrorism in general, torture, women and war. Adverse psychological and psychiatric effects of war and major disasters on civilians and combatants, such as posttraumatic stress disorder and combat fatigue, are discussed in detail as are altrnism and cooperation that might help to prevent man's self-destruction. In tandem, the work reviews the financial, ideological, religious, social and political drivers of conflict as well as the econometrics of war the role of mass