Stratigraphic Reservoir Characterization for Petroleum Geologists, Geophysicists, and Engineers (Volume 61) (Developments in Petroleum Science, Volume 61)

Reservoir characterization as a discipline grew out of the recognition that more oil and gas could be extracted from reservoirs if the geology of the reservoir was understood. Prior to that awakening, reservoir development and production were the realm of the petroleum engineer. In fact, geologists of that time would have felt slighted if asked by corporate management to move from an exciting exploration assignment to a more mundane assignment working with an engineer to improve a reservoir’s performance. Slowly, reservoir characterization came into its own as a quantitative, multidisciplinary endeavor requiring a vast array of skills and knowledge sets. Perhaps the biggest attractor to becoming a reservoir geologist was the advent of fast computing, followed by visualization programs and theaters, all of which allow young geoscientists to practice their computing skills in a highly technical work environment. Also, the discipline grew in parallel with the evolution of data integration and the advent of asset teams in the petroleum industry. Finally, reservoir characterization flourished with the quantum improvements that have occurred in geophysical acquisition and processing techniques and that allow geophysicists to image internal reservoir complexities. Practical resource describing different types of sandstone and shale reservoirs Case histories of reservoir studies for easy comparison Applications of standard, new, and emerging technologies Dedication Preface Series Editor's Preface General Introduction Integrating Expertise for Reservoir Characterization Oil and Gas: The Main Sources of Global Energy Resources and Reserves Predicting the Remaining Resource The Global Energy Resource The ``Shale Gale ́ ́ Gas Hydrates (Clathrates) Energy Consumption The Added Value of Reservoir Characterization Examples of Added Value by Reservoir Characterization Brownfields Compartmentalization of Oil and Gas Reservoirs Compartmentalization: The Exception or the Rule? The Significance of Compartmentalization The Nature of Compartmentalization and Architectural Elements Clastic Depositional Environments and Types of Deposits Scales and Styles of Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity Hierarchical Scales of Geologic Heterogeneity (Levels) When Is Reservoir Characterization Important in the Life Cycle of a Field? The Life Cycle of a Field Applying Reservoir Characterization The Value of Case Studies References Basic Sedimentary Rock Properties Introduction Classification and Properties of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Siliciclastic Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks Texture Composition Porosity and Permeability Significance to Reservoirs Chemical and Biogenic Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary Structures and Their Significance Physical Sedimentary Structures Structures Formed by Currents and Waves Structures Formed by Sediment Loading Erosional Sedimentary Structures Sandstone Injectites Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Body Fossils Trace Fossils Chemical Sedimentary Structures Summary References Geologic Time and Stratigraphy Introduction North American Geologic Time Scale Determining the Time Frame in Which a Rock Formed Radiometric Age Dating (The Clocks in Rocks) Relative Age Dating Micropaleontology and Biostratigraphy in Reservoir Characterization High-Resolution Biostratigraphic Zonation (Biozones) High-Resolution Well Log and Seismic Correlation from Biostratigraphy Determining Sedimentation Rates from Biostratigraphy Biostratigraphy and Condensed Sections Biostratigraphy and Depositional Environments Palynology Walther's Law and the Succession of Sedimentary Facies Summary References Tools and Techniques for Characterizing Oil and Gas Reservoirs Introduction Static and Dynamic Properties of Reservoirs Measuring Properties at Different Scales Computers and the Computing Environment Seismic-Reflection and Subsurface Imaging Two-Dimensional Seismic Three-Dimensional Seismic Four-Dimensional Seismic Spectral Decomposition Seismic Inversion Crosswell Seismic Investigation Multicomponent Seismic Investigation Some Pitfalls in Seismic Analysis Seismic Attribute Analysis (Written by Michael Burnett) Logging and Sampling a Well Sampling Conventional Logs Unconventional and Specialized Logs Borehole-Image Logs Dipmeter Logs Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Logs Other Specialized Logs Summary References Basics of Sequence Stratigraphy for Reservoir Characterization Sequence Stratigraphic Approach to Reservoir Characterization Definitions and Basic Concepts Transgressions and Regressions Evolution and Applications of Sequence Stratigraphy Scales of Cyclicity Procedure for Developing a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework Summary References Geologic Controls on Reservoir Quality Definitions Examination and Measurement of Porosity and Permeability Direct Observation Direct Measurement Primary Grain-Size Control on Reservoir Quality Diagenesis and Reservoir Quality Flow-Unit Characterization for Correlation and Upscaling Flow Units That Combine Geologic and Petrophysical Properties Gunter et al.s (1997) Method of Flow-Unit Characterization Upscaling Using Flow Units Capillary Pressure and Its Applications to Reservoir Characterization Principles of Capillary Pressure Routine Laboratory Measurement of Capillary Pressure Relationship of Pc to Pore-Throat Size and Size Distribution Relationships Among Porosity, Permeability, Pore-Throat Size, and Pc Relations Among Capillary Pressure, Grain-Size Distribution, and Water Saturation (Sw) Conversion of Air-Hg Capillary-Pressure Measurements to Reservoir Conditions Free Water Level and Fluid Saturations in a Reservoir Capillarity and Seal Capacity Pore-Throat Size and Capillary Pressure from Conventional Core-Analysis Data Seismic Porosity Measurement Summary References Fluvial Deposits and Reservoirs Introduction Braided Fluvial (River) Deposits and Reservoirs Processes and Deposits Reservoir Examples Murdoch Field, North Sea Rhourde El Baguel Field, Algeria Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska Meandering-River Deposits and Reservoirs Processes and Deposits Reservoir Examples Rulison Field, Colorado Incised-Valley-Fill Deposits and Reservoirs Processes and Deposits Reservoir Examples Sorrento Field, Colorado Regional Morrow Sandstone Stratigraphy and Stacking Patterns of Fluvial Reservoirs General Examples Glenn Pool Field, Oklahoma, United States Cooper-Eromanga Basins, Australia Northeast Betara Field (by I. Nyoman Suta and Budi Tyas Utomo), PetroChina International, Jakarta, Indonesia History of Northeast Betara Field Field Characteristics Sedimentary Facies, Properties, and Distribution Lower Braided-River Facies Shale Interval Upper Meandering-River Facies Reservoir Compartments Depositional Model Sequence Stratigraphy Field Development Plan Field Development Scenario Determination of Proposed Development Wells Six Years Later Summary References Eolian (Windblown) Deposits and Reservoirs Introduction Processes and Deposits Sandstone Reservoir Examples Leman Sandstone Gas Reservoirs, North Sea Rough Gas Field, North Sea Pickerill Field, North Sea Painter Reservoir Field, Wyoming Tensleep Sandstone, Wyoming, USA Location and Outcrop Characteristics Outcrop 3D Geologic Model Application to Tensleep Subsurface Reservoirs Loess (Eolian Siltstone) Deposits and Reservoirs Bravo Dome Field Three Forks Formation Summary References Deltaic Deposits and Reservoirs Introduction General Deltaic Processes, Environments (Physiographic Zones), and Types Deltas Within a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework River-Dominated Delta Deposits and Reservoirs Processes and Deposits Reservoir Example: Prudhoe Bay Field Kuparuk River Field, Alaska USA Wave-Dominated Deltas Processes and Deposits Reservoir Example: Budare Field Tide-Dominated Deltas Reservoir Example: Lagunillas Field Summary References Nondeltaic, Shallow Marine Deposits and Reservoirs Introduction Shallow Marine Processes and Environments Nondeltaic Shallow Marine Deposits Within a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework Shoreline and Shallow Marine Deposits Shelf, Shoreface, and/or Valley Fill Sandstones Significance of the Origin of Deposits Shoreface/Shallow Marine Reservoirs Hartzog Draw Field Terry Sandstone, Denver Basin, Colorado Some Midcontinent Pennsylvanian Sandstones, Oklahoma, United States Early Tertiary Shallow Marine Sandstones, Mexico Barrier-Island Deposits and Reservoirs Complex Processes and Deposits Bell Creek and Recluse Fields, Montana and Wyoming, United States Summary References Deepwater Deposits and Reservoirs Introduction Definitions Global Deepwater Resources Sedimentary Processes and Deposits Operative in Deep Water Sediment Gravity Flows: Processes Sediment Gravity Flows: Deposits Depositional Models General Models Graded and Out-of-Grade Continental Margins Architectural Elements of Deepwater Deposits Sheet (Lobe) Deposits Channel-Fill Deposits Levee Deposits Relations Between Levee and Channel Deposits of a Leveed-Channel System Mass Transport Complexes or Deposits Deepwater Reservoir Examples Ram-Powell Field, Northern Gulf of Mexico Andrew Field, U.K. Sector, North Sea Girassol Field, Offshore Angola Long Beach Unit, Wilmington Oil Field, Onshore California Canfield Ranch Field, San Joaquin Basin, California, United States Deepwater Gulf of Mexico (by Zou and Slatt, 2012) Summary References Unconventional Resource Shales Introduction Shale Depositional Processes and Environments Shale Composition and Fabric Anisotropy Minerals Organics Shale Porosity, Permeability, and Pore Types Geochemistry Organic Matter, Kerogen, and Bitumen Maturity of Organic Matter Rock-Eval Parameters Estimating TOC from Well Logs Hydrocarbon Compounds Stable Isotopes Geochemical Biomarkers Lithofacies Stacking and Sequence Stratigraphy Barnett Shale (Devonian) Woodford Shale (Late Devonian–Early Mississippian) Eagle Ford Formation (Cretaceous) General Sequence-Stratigraphic Model for Shales Chemostratigraphy Geomechanics and Brittle–Ductile Couplets Some Economic and Societal Considerations of Gas- and Oil-Bearing Shales History of Shale Reservoir Development Risks and Uncertainties in Shale Exploration and Development Concluding Remarks References Geologic and Engineering Modeling Introduction General Workflow Realization Methodology: Deterministic Versus Stochastic Modeling Outcrop ``Reservoir ́ ́ Modeling Hollywood Quarry, Deepwater Jackfork Group, Arkansas, United States Baumgartner Quarry, Deepwater Jackfork Group, Arkansas, United States Lewis Shale, Wyoming, United States Subsurface Case Study Summary References Index

Reservoir characterization as a discipline grew out of the recognition that more oil and gas could be extracted from reservoirs if the geology of the reservoir was understood. Prior to that awakening, reservoir development and production were the realm of the petroleum engineer. In fact, geologists of that time would have felt slighted if asked by corporate management to move from an exciting exploration assignment to a more mundane assignment working with an engineer to improve a reservoir’s performance.

Slowly, reservoir characterization came into its own as a quantitative, multidisciplinary endeavor requiring a vast array of skills and knowledge sets. Perhaps the biggest attractor to becoming a reservoir geologist was the advent of fast computing, followed by visualization programs and theaters, all of which allow young geoscientists to practice their computing skills in a highly technical work environment. Also, the discipline grew in parallel with the evolution of data integration and the advent of asset teams in the petroleum industry. Finally, reservoir characterization flourished with the quantum improvements that have occurred in geophysical acquisition and processing techniques and that allow geophysicists to image internal reservoir complexities.

• Practical resource describing different types of sandstone and shale reservoirs
• Case histories of reservoir studies for easy comparison
• Applications of standard, new, and emerging technologies